coup d’état

November 20, 2020

20 November 2020

A coup d’état is a sudden, illegal or extra-constitutional change in a government. The phrase is often shortened to simply coup. It can be either violent or non-violent, but revolutions and civil wars are not generally considered to be coups d’état. Typically, a coup d’état involves the military seizing the reins of power. The term is, obviously, borrowed from French. A coup is literally a blow or stroke, from from the Latin colaphus, a blow with the fist, and the Greek κόλαϕος (kolaphos), a cuff or buffet. And état means state; both état and state come from the Latin status, meaning position or rank. So, a coup d’état is a stroke or blow of state.

But the term didn’t always carry the above sense. When it first entered into English, it referred to a masterful political stratagem. We see it in English use by 1646 in James Howell’s Lustra Ludovici, in which he used the term to describe Cardinal Richelieu’s strategy to cut off support to the Protestant Huguenots:

With this Match with England, there was an alliance also made about the same time with Holland for a summe of Money. These were the two first Coups d' estat, stroaks of State that he made, and it was done with this forecast, that France might be the better enabled to suppres them of the Religion, which the Cardinal found to be the greatest weaknes of that Kingdom.

And in his 1811 Despotism: or the Fall of the Jesuits, Isaac Disraeli, the father of the British prime minister, described a coup d’état as a stratagem to dispose of a ruler’s enemies, emphasizing how it must be kept secret in order to succeed:

It is evident that, among the Arcana Imperiorum, there are sometimes what the political French term, great Coups d’Etat, to be performed; and these Arcana, to adopt the words of Tacitus, are nothing less than flagitia imperiorum, political crimes, supposed to be necessary to preserve the governing Powers. These can only be confided to a select few, to whom the inmost secrets of the King's heart are exposed; from their nature they cannot be deliberated on in any open Council. Henry III. could not have concented the death of the Guises; Henry IV, that of Biron; nor Elizabeth that of Essex, but in the darkest corners of their Cabinets. The massacre of St. Bartholomew, a great Coup d'Etat, could not admit of an open Council—Stratagems are silent things. We do not take hares by blowing a trumpet, nor catch birds by hanging bells in the nets, observed a shrewd Statesman.

In an event that has echoes in the politics of the United States in 2020, the shift to seizing power happened in 1851, when Louis Bonaparte, nephew of the former emperor, conducted a coup d’état against the government of the Second Republic of France. Louis Napoleon was president of the Republic and had just unsuccessfully tried to amend the constitution to allow himself to remain in power for another term. When he failed to achieve the required votes in the Assembly to do so, he used the military to dissolve the Assembly and the Second Republic, thus establishing the Second Empire with himself as Emperor Napoleon III. His actions were both an elimination of his enemies and an extra-constitutional seizure of power. As reported in the London Morning Post on 3 December 1851, the day after the coup d’état:

Nothing could show more strongly the profound conviction prevalent through France, that the Assembly had forgotten its duties and mistaken its proper course, than the quiet approval with which the middle classes contemplated the impending fate of their representatives, while a coup d’état was merely a thing talked of; and it seems, as we judged would be the case, that nothing could be more complete than the indifference with which the actual cessation of their existence, as a member of the body politic, has been regarded by the citizens of Paris.
[...]
Of himself, he has attempted to establish no sovereignty—he claims no power beyond that which he employs in giving the nation freedom to do its own work, and make its own choice. In order to give that freedom, it was necessary, beyond all doubt, to get rid of the Assembly, which had shown itself so disposed to employ its last days in plotting against the free action of public opinion to which the “coup d’état” refers the whole settlement of future government.

The Morning Post got that last bit wrong, of course.

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Sources:

Disraeli, Isaac. Despotism: or the Fall of the Jesuits, vol. 2 of 2. London: John Murray, 1811, 338–39. HathiTrust Digital Archive.

Howell, James. Lustra Ludovici, or the Life of the Late Victorious King of France, Louis XIII, and of His Cardinal Richelieu. London: Humphrey Moseley, 1646. 167. Early English Books Online (EEBO).

Morning Post (London), 3 December 1851, 4. Gale News Vault.

Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, 1989, s.v. coup, n.3, coup, n.1.

Image Credit: Illustrated London News, 13 December 1851, 712. Public domain image.

guerrilla

November 19, 2020

19 November 2020

In Spanish, guerilla literally means little war. Henry Neuman’s 1809 Spanish-English dictionary defined it so:

Guerrílla, s. f. 1. Skirmish, a slight engagement. 2. Game at cards between two persons, each with twenty cards.

The word also came to mean an irregular warrior who engages in a skirmish or raid, as opposed to a regular soldier who fights in pitched battles. It is this sense that English borrowed guerrilla, and it first appeared in English in the context of the Duke of Wellington’s Peninsular Campaign during the Napoleonic wars. Wellington wrote in a dispatch on 8 August 1809:

Beresford writes me on the 4th from Almeida, that 34,000 men had gone by Baños to Pasencia, and that none but sick remained in Castille. I have recommended to the Junta to set Romana, the Duque del Parque and the guerrillas to work towards Madrid.

And Walter Scott lionized the guerrillas of that war in his poem “The Vision of Don Roderick,” published in 1811 but likely also written in 1809:

Nor unatoned, where Freedom’s foes prevail,
   Remained their savage waste. With blade and brand,
By day the Invaders ravaged hill and dale,
   But, with the darkness, the Guerilla band
Came like night’s tempest, and avenged the land,
   And claimed for blood the retribution due,
Probed the hard heart, and lopp’d the murderous hand;
   And Dawn, when o’er the scene her beams she threw,
Midst ruins they had made the spoilers’ corpses knew.

This sense of an irregular soldier has been the primary sense in English ever since.

But like many words, it acquired a figurative sense over time, and it has been used attributively to refer anything that is non-standard or that seeks to accomplish its goals through irregular means.

Guerrilla advertising appeared as early as the late nineteenth century. From the medical journal Polyclinic of November 1888:

Do the committee intend to recognize the so-called pure pepsins, crystal pepsins, scale pepsins, etc., etc., which, by a system of “guerrilla” advertising known as the “pepsin war,” have been foisted upon the deceived medical profession?

But this instance was something of an outlier. This figurative sense of guerrilla didn’t really catch on until the second half of the twentieth century, a result of the various “wars of liberation” fought by irregular forces in that period.

The phrase guerrilla theater appeared in and as the title of an article in the Tulane Drama Review in the summer of 1966. The article’s author, R.G. Davis, credited Peter Berg of the San Francisco Mime Troup with the term’s coinage. Davis and Berg envisioned guerrilla theater as committed to radical social change. Davis wrote:

Social theatre is a risky business, both aesthetically and politically: assuming that the difficulties of style and content have been solved, the stage success can be closed because of "fire violations," obscenity, or even parking on the grass. What do you do then? You roll with the punches, play all fields, learn the law, join the ACLU, become equipped to pack up and move quickly when you're outnumbered. Never engage the enemy head on. Choose your fighting ground; don't be forced into battle over the wrong issues. Guerrilla theatre travels light and makes friends of the populace.

But it wouldn’t be long before corporate America appropriated the guerrilla label. An advertisement in the Minneapolis Tribune of 22 April 1979 touted a seminar in which, among other things, paying attendees could learn:

The principles of guerrilla marketing warfare.

Guerrilla marketing uses surprise and low-cost, unconventional tactics, like flash mobs, to generate publicity. It uses revolutionary tactics without revolutionary ideology, the tools of the communists to keep the capitalists in power.

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Sources:

Advanced Management Research. “On Monday, June 11th War Comes to Minneapolis” (advertisement). Minneapolis Tribune, 22 April 1979, 7D. ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

Beringer, George M. “The National Formulary.” The Polyclinic, 6.5, November 1888, 134. HathiTrust Digital Archive.

Davis, R. G., “Guerrilla Theatre.” The Tulane Drama Review, 10.4, Summer 1966, 131–132. JSTOR.

Neuman, Henry. A New Dictionary of the Spanish and English Languages, vol 1 of 2. London: J. Johnson, et al. 1809. HathiTrust Digital Archive.

Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, draft editions, June 2015, s.v. guerrilla | guerilla, n.

Scott, Walter. “The Vision of Don Roderick.” The Edinburgh Annual Register for 1809, vol 2, part 2. Edinburgh: James Ballantyne for John Ballantyne, 1811, 622. HathiTrust Digital Archive.

Wellesley, Arthur. “Dispatch to Viscount Castlereagh, 8 August 1809.” The Dispatches of Field Marshall The Duke of Wellington, vol. 5 of 12. London: John Murray, 1838, 9. HathiTrust Digital Archive.

Image credit: "As Guerrilhas na Guerra Peninsular" (Guerrilla Warfare During the Peninsular War), Roque Gameiro, 1907.

ground zero

November 18, 2020

18 November 2020

The original sense of ground zero is the point on the earth’s surface at or directly below a nuclear detonation. The term appears to have been invented by the United States Strategic Bombing Survey, which undertook extensive analysis, starting in 1944, to determine what impact the bombing of Germany and Japan had on the outcome of the war.

The earliest example of ground zero I have found (not all of the survey’s reports are digitized and readily available) is from a report on effect bombing had on Japan’s electrical grid that was prepared in late 1945:

The atomic bombs rendered substations within five-eighths of a mile of ground zero of the blast inoperative and put them beyond demonstrated recuperative ability of the Japanese.

And on 15 February 1946 the vice chairman of the survey, Paul Nitze, testified before the U.S. Senate and used the term:

I think we might go to some of the major points which have been raised, taking first the question as to the blast effect which was caused by the atomic bomb in relation to the blast effect which might have been caused by a 10-ton blockbuster. We have computed the distances from ground zero point at which structures of all various types were destroyed.

And on 30 June 1946 the survey published its report on The Effects of Atomic Bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki:

Some of the construction details (reinforcing rod splices, for example) were often poor, and much of the concrete was definitely weak; thus some reinforced concrete buildings collapsed and suffered structural damage when within 2,000 feet of ground zero, and some internal wall paneling was demolished even up to 3,800 feet. (For convenience, the term "ground zero" will be used to designate the point on the ground directly beneath the point of detonation, or "air zero.")

This report, which was unclassified, was widely reported in the press, and it is at this point that the general public begins to use ground zero. For example, there is this article from the Chicago Tribune of 30 June 1946, which is only one of several papers that used the term on that and following days:

Within a radius of one kilometer (.62 of a mile) from ground zero (the point beneath the blast center), men and animals died almost instantaneously from the tremendous blast pressure and heat; houses and other structures were smashed, crushed, and scattered; and fires broke out.

Since that original sense, the term has been used for some other, related ones. During the Cold War, the outdoor cafe in the center of the Pentagon’s courtyard was jocularly labeled Ground Zero by wags in the Defense Department. Presumably, the hot dog stand was the Soviet’s aim point. Or there is this jocular use by journalist Bob Besch from 5 June 1960:

This rusty shovel was recovered from ground zero during the Great Septic Tank Heave of 1958. Miraculously nobody was killed or maimed, but the event caused rumblings of terror throughout a three-block area, not to mention a revolting clean-up job.

More seriously, ground zero has been used to refer to the center of a calamity or struggle, as in this example by Philip Ortego from 1971 about the problems of Mexican-American education in the United States:

A new breed of teacher is needed, sensitive to the diverse educational problems of Mexican Americans. At educational ground zero, Mexican American youngsters are being wiped out. The dropout cycle of Mexican Americans can be broken, but it will take a lot of doing.

Finally, the specific use of ground zero to refer to the site of the terrorist attack on the World Trade Center on 11 September 2001 falls somewhere between the sense of a nuclear bomb site and the center of a calamity. The name of the first person who used ground zero to refer to the World Trade Center site is not known, and it was probably independently applied to the site by several people. From an Associated Press report on that day:

Crews began heading into ground zero of the terrorist attack to search for survivors and recover bodies. The downtown area was cordoned off, and huge, grisly rescue effort was under way.

All that is known about the origin of this specific sense of ground zero is that by the end of the day on 11 September the phrase was on the lips of millions.

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Sources:

Associated Press. “New York Undertakes Massive Rescue Effort.” Iowa City Press-Citizen, 11 September 2001, Special Edition, 2A. ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

Besch, Bob. “How to Go Down in History.” Mansfield News-Journal (Ohio), 5 June 1960, 2. ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

Manly, Chesly. “Survey Denies A-Bomb Caused Jap Surrender.” Chicago Tribune, 30 June 1946, 12.

Ortego, Philip D. “The Education of Mexican Americans.” The Chicanos: Mexican American Voices, Ed Ludwig and James Santibañez, eds. Baltimore: Penguin, 1971, 167. HathiTrust Digital Archive.

Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, 1989, s.v. ground, n.

United States Senate. Hearings Before the Special Committee on Atomic Energy, part 5. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 15 February 1946, 515. HathiTrust Digital Archive.

United States Strategic Bombing Survey. The Effects of Atomic Bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 30 June 1946, 5. HathiTrust Digital Archive.

———. The Electric Power Industry of Japan. 9 October 1945–3 December 1945, 5. HathiTrust Digital Archive.

Photo credit: Steven Donald Smith, U.S. Department of Defense.

gringo

November 17, 2020

17 November 2020

Gringo is a borrowing from Spanish and is alteration of Griego, or Greek. In Spanish, the phrase hablar en griego, to talk in Greek, means to speak unintelligibly. This is akin to the English phrase, it’s all Greek to me. Both the Spanish and English idioms apparently come from the sixteenth-century Latin phrase, graecum est; non potest legi (it is Greek; it cannot be read). Evidently it was the practice of scholars at the time, who often did not read Greek, when copying texts to omit Greek words that appeared in them, using this notation to mark the omission. An example from 1579 that criticizes a scholar for omitting a Greek word found in Jerome’s works and not marking it with the phrase:

We haue often seene before, what an impudent falsarie M. Hesk. is of the Doctors, and here, I know not for what cause, except it were to trouble the sense of Hieronymes words, both in ye Latine & in his English translation, he hath left out the Greeke word yt Hieronyme vseth in this sentence, A tempore igitur ἐνδελεχισμοῦ, quod nos interpretati sumus iuge sacrificium &c. Therefore from the time of the perpetuitie, which we haue interpreted the perpetuall sacrifice, &c. At least wise he should haue noted in the margent Graecum est, non potest legi.

Gringo is first recorded in Spanish. It appears in Esteban de Terreros y Pando’s 1787 Diccionario Castellano:

Gringos, Ilaman en Malaga á los estranjeros, que tienen cierta especie de acento, que los priva de una locucion facil y natural Castellana; y en Madrid dán el mismo, y por la misma causa con particularidad a los Irlandeses.
(Gringos, they call in Malaga those foreigners who have a certain type of accent which keeps them from speaking Castilian easily and naturally; and in Madrid they are given the same name, and for the same reason, particularly to the Irish.)

And somewhat later, the adjective is recorded in the 1837 edition of Neuman and Baretti’s Dictionary of the Spanish and English Languages:

Gríngo, a. (Coll.) Unintelligible, gibberish: applied to language.

The earliest English example that I have found is by Thomas Sutcliffe, an English mercenary in the employ of the Chilean government as the military governor of Juan Fernandez. He published his account of the 1835 insurrection and earthquake on that island in 1839:

I asked him why they had applied to those persons, knowing me to be their Governor, and who alone had power to pardon them. He replied that they did not even mention my name until one, called Gutierrez, said he would not surrender, for fear of being shot by the Gringo, as he had little dependance on the padre’s promise.

Also in 1839 and in regard to Chile, the Southern Literary Messenger published the following in its August issue:

Whilst looking about for the landing place, our movements were discovered by the guard on shore, and we were hailed with “quien vive,” who comes there? My colleague had previously arranged that this challenge should be answered by the officer of our boat whose Gringo accent would prove that he was not a Chilian. In the present state of hostilities, if I speak, said he, they may suspect us of being enemies, and give us a volley. A satisfactory parley ensued, in which we called ourselves Norte-Americanos, to which the guard replied, Ah, si!—Ingleses—English. By analogy, our people usually call a South American, of whatever republic, a Spaniard.

English adoption of gringo is often associated with the 1846–48 Mexican-American War. Certainly, the word became familiar to many American soldiers, and by extension the rest of the United States, as a result of the war, but it was in circulation prior to that.

There are also stories that gringo’s origin is from a song, the lyrics of which have been claimed to be by Robert Burns, with the refrain “Green grows the rashes, O,” which was sung by soldiers in the 1840s war, or alternatively by English-speaking mercenaries in Bolivar’s army earlier in that century. These stories are pure invention.

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Sources:

Forbes, Peter. Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect. Edinburgh: R. Menzies, 1812, 148–50. HathiTrust Digital Library.

Fulke, William. D. Heskins, D. Sanders, and M. Rastel, Accounted (Among Their Faction) Three Pillars and Archpatriarches of the Popish Synagogue. London: Henry Middleton, 1579, 120. Early English Books Online (EEBO).

H, W.B. “A Journey Across the Andes.” Southern Literary Messenger, 5.8., August 1839, 513. ProQuest.

Neuman and Baretti’s Dictionary of the Spanish and English Languages, fifth ed., vol. 1 of 2. M. Seoane, ed. London: Longman, et al.: 1837, 458. HathiTrust Digital Library.

Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, 1989, s.v. gringo, n.

Sutcliffe, Thomas. “Extracts Relative to the Insurrection.” The Earthquake of Juan Fernandez as it Occurred in the Year 1835. Manchester: Advertiser Office, 1839, 12. HathiTrust Digital Library.

Terreros y Pando, Esteban. Diccionario Castellano, vol. 2 of 4. Madrid: Viuda de Ibarra, Hijos y Compañia, 1787. 240. HathiTrust Digital Library.

Photo credit: Strom Carlson, 5 April 2007. Used under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.5 Generic license.

green room

November 16, 2020

16 November 2020

A green room is a place for performers to wait and relax until they are needed on stage. Why it is called green is not known, although there are many guesses. The issue is complicated because in some of the early uses of the phrase we don’t know exactly what they are referring to.

One of the first references to a green room is in Samuel Pepys Diary of 7 October 1666, although the context at first blush does not seem theatrical. Pepys writes that he was called to the Palace of Whitehall that day to meet with the king to discuss the naval budget:

And anon we were called in to the green-room, where the King, Duke of York, Prince Rupert, Lord Chancellor, Lord Treasurer, Duke of Albemarle, G. Carteret, W. Coventry, Morrice.

Part of the Whitehall Palace complex was the Cockpit-in-Court, so named because cockfighting was held there. But it was also used as a theater and for wide assortment of functions, including as a residence for courtiers. After the Restoration of the monarchy and the legal appearance of women on stage, a dressing room for female actors, decorated in green baize, was constructed there in 1662. Pepys may have been referring to a meeting in this room, or perhaps it was to another room elsewhere in the palace. We do not know.

In his 1676 play The Virtuoso, Thomas Shadwell references a green room:

Your Marriage-Bawd, your Canonical-Bawd is worst of all; they betray people for their lives-time. Here, carry her, and lock her up in the green-room; I'll maul your Bawdship.

Again, while the term appears in a play, the context is not theatrical, so again we don’t know exactly what green room means here. But a few years later, in his 1679 play A True Widow, Shadwell makes the first clear reference to an actor’s waiting room by that name. The scene is set in a theater:

Lady Busy.     Fie, Mr. Stanmore, that you should say such an ungentile thing! Come, Miss, bear up, and do not cry: how can you endure to see a young Lady's tears, and not melt: Come on; pretty Miss, I am sure you will be kind, and constant to Mr. Stanmore, will you not?
Gartrude.     Yes, yes.
Lady Busy.     Good. Why look you, Sir, I know you are a worthy Gentleman, and will consider of a Settlement, such as befits a Gentlewoman.
Stanmore.     No, Madam: Selfish, this Evening, in a green Room, behind the Scenes, was before-hand with me; she ne'r tells of that: Can I love one that prostitutes her self to that Fellow?

The OED brackets this citation, indicating the editors did not think this clearly referred to a actor’s waiting area, but to my mind it at least clearly refers to some space behind a theatrical stage.

The 1692 divorce proceedings between Henry Howard, the 7th Duke of Norfolk and Mary Mordaunt give us another early instance of the word, again a non-theatrical one. The context of this particular use is quite juicy. Howard was suing his wife for divorce on the grounds that she had slept with Sir John Germain. The testimony of one of the servants, a Thomas Hudson, includes references to Nell Gwyn, actress, prostitute, and mistress to Charles II:

Thomas Hudson saith, That the Duke of Norfolk being at Portsmouth, he was Butler at Windsor, when Germaine, and the Dutchess, and Cornwall went to play; Germaine sent his Footman for clean Linen, which he brought the next Morning; Mrs. Gwin said to the Dutchess, The Dog would have lain with me, but she would not lay the Dog where the Deer laid, for she knew my Lady Dutchess would accept of him; after that he saw a Shirt and a Wascoat in the Closet, which my Ladies Woman and Ann Burton took away. My Lord being absent, we murmured amongst our selves, that my Lord was wrong'd; I told my Lord, whereupon my Master Cragg had me to my Lord Peterborough's Lodging, and threaten'd me, that he would prefer me to his Brother Richards, who turn'd me off in Germany. This was, he thinks, in December or September 1685: Mrs. Gwin spoke this in the Green Room, and he was in a Closet hard by, and the Door open, and so heard it.

The incident in question happened at Windsor, and we don’t know what the green room referred to was. Howard was not granted the divorce in 1692, in large part because his fellow lords found him as guilty of infidelity as she, but the couple eventually divorced in 1700. Mordaunt eventually married Germain.

The term appears again in 1694 in the anonymous play The Adventures of the Helvetian Hero:

The Young Couple's Apartments were fixt, and their Bedchamber assign'd them in that Green Room once her Maiden-Castle or Imprisonment, now the Nuptial Bed-room, abounding with all the Freedom and Delights that Matrimony and the Marriage bed could afford.

The next clear reference to a theatrical waiting area is in Colley Cibber’s 1701 Love Makes a Man:

Yes, Sir, I do know London pretty well, and the Side-box, Sir, and behind the Scenes, ay, and the Green Room too, and all the Girls, and Women-Actresses there.

And we get another in Henry Fielding’s 1736 play Pasquin, which gives us some insight into the hierarchical nature of the London theater of that day:

1st Player.     Sir, the Prompter, and most of the Players, are drinking Tea in the Green-Room.
Trapwit.     Mr. Fustian, shall we go drink a Dish of Tea with them? Come, Sir, as you have a Part in my Play, you shall drink a Dish with us.
1st Player.      Sir, I dare no go into the Green-Room; my Salary is not high enough: I shall be forfeited if I go in there.

After this date, we have many clear references to green room as a theatrical waiting area.

So why the green? We don’t know, but there are two commonly touted explanations that we can dismiss. The first is that actors’ waiting rooms are painted green because the color is psychologically soothing. This explanation relies on twentieth-century psychological theory which would not exist in the seventeenth century. The other clearly false explanation is that the room is called green because actors would be paid there. Besides having no evidence that such rooms were used to conduct financial business, the association of the color green with money comes from U.S. currency being that color. English banknotes are not green as a rule. Besides, back in the day actors would more likely have been paid in coin, not notes.

Perhaps it is named for the female actor’s dressing room in Whitehall Palace. Or maybe to another such room so decorated. The early non-theatrical uses of the term seem to indicate that green room may have had an early sense meaning a woman’s dressing room or boudoir, and over time that extended in theatrical use to include male actors. We’ll probably never know for sure.

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Sources:

The Adventures of the Helvetian Hero. London: Randall Taylor, 1694, 137–38. Early English Books Online (EEBO).

Cibber, Colley. Love Makes a Man. London: Richard Parker, 1701, 44. Eighteenth Century Collections Online (ECCO).

Fielding, Henry. Pasquin. London: J. Watts, 1736, 12–13. HathiTrust Digital Archive.

———. Pasquin. O.M. Brack, William Kupersmith, and Curt A. Zimansky, eds. Iowa City: U of Iowa Press, 1973, 54. HathiTrust Digital Archive.

Oxford English Dictionary, third edition, June 2011, s.v. green room, n.

Pepys, Samuel. The Diary of Samuel Pepys, vol. 7 of 10. William Matthews and Robert Latham, eds. Berkeley: U of California Press, 1972, 312. HathiTrust Digital Archive.

Shadwell, Thomas. A True Widow. London: Benjamin Tooke, 1679, 61–62. Early English Books Online (EEBO).

———. The Virtuoso. London: T.N. for Henry Herringman, 1676, 62. Early English Books Online (EEBO).

A True Account of The Proceedings Before the House of Lords; (From Jan. 7. 1691. To Feb. 17. Following) Between the Duke and Dutchess of Norfolk. 26. London: 1692, Early English Books Online (EEBO).

Photo credit: Edinburgh Blog, 29 September 2007, used under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license.