lawrencium

Albert Ghiorso (center left) adds lawrencium to the periodic table. Looking on, left to right, are Robert Latimer, Torbjørn Sikkeland, and Almon E. Larsh

22 December 2023

Lawrencium is a synthetic chemical element with atomic number 103 and the symbol Lr. It is named in honor of Ernest Lawrence, inventor of the cyclotron and founder of the laboratory that made the first claim of the element’s discovery. The most stable isotope of lawrencium has a half-life of only eleven hours. It has no uses beyond pure research.

The discovery of lawrencium was announced on 12 April 1961, but the announcement was overshadowed by Yuri Gagarin’s flight into space aboard Vostok 1 which happened on the same day, and US-Soviet competition would make the naming of the element controversial throughout the Cold War. A wire service report on the discovery from that day reads:

A new chemical element has been discovered by United States atomic scientists, it was announced Wednesday.

The discovery was made by a group at the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory at the University of California. They have suggested that the new element 103 be named Lawrencium, with the chemical symbol lw [sic] in honor of the late Ernest C. Lawrence, Nobel prize winning inventor of the cyclotron and founder of the laboratory.

The initial discovery was made by Albert Ghiorso, Torbjørn Sikkeland, Almon E. Larsh and Robert M. Latimer of the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory at the University of California, Berkeley. In 1963 the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) accepted the name lawrencium but changed the symbol to Lr.

The initial discovery was not, however, without controversy. The data published by the Berkeley team was insufficient to confirm the element’s existence, and that confirmation came over the next few years from Soviet scientists at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) in Dubna, Russia. IUPAC initially credited the Berkeley team as the sole discoverers but in 1997 revised that assessment and gave credit for the discovery to both the American and Russian teams. The name and symbol remained unchanged.

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Sources:

Ghiorso, Albert, et al. “New Element, Lawrencium, Atomic Number 103” (13 April 1961). Physical Review Letters, 6.9, 1 May 1961, 473–475 at 475. American Physical Society.

Miśkowiec, Pawel. “Name Game: The Naming History of the Chemical Elements—Part 3—Rivalry of Scientists in the Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries.” Foundations of Chemistry, 12 November 2022. DOI: 10.1007/s10698-022-09452-9.

Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, 1989, s.v. lawrencium, n.

United Press International. “Atomic Scientists Find New Element.” Houston Chronicle (Texas), 12 April 1961, section 2, 5.3. Readex: America’s Historical Newspapers.

Boxing Day

Boxing Day shoppers at Toronto’s Eaton Centre mall, 26 December 2019

20 December 2023

Boxing Day is 26 December, the day after Christmas. It is celebrated in Britain and many of the Commonwealth countries, including Canada, but not in the United States. The name arises out of the old practice of giving servants a box of money and gifts on that day. The name Boxing Day appears in the mid eighteenth century, although the practice of distributing gifts to servants and apprentices is older.

The practice of distributing money to the poor on 26 December, St. Stephen’s Day on the Roman Catholic calendar, dates to medieval times, but that is not the origin of the later practice or the phrase Boxing Day.

As for the history of the term itself, the verb to box, meaning to place things in a container, and corresponding noun boxing date to the mid sixteenth century. We also see the phrases Christmas box and butler’s box by the sixteenth century, but the earliest uses of these come out of gambling. At the holidays, aristocratic gamers would put aside a portion of their winnings in a box to give to the butler. We see Christmas box in this context in a sermon on the evils of usury that was printed in 1558:

Marie, as nedefull may we count them amoong vs, as amoo[n]g gamners, is ten and fowr for a Christmas box, that in smal processe of play (if the banks be not the bigger) is like to rob all ye boord.

And in another sermon on usury in 1591 we see butler’s box:

Now, you long to heare what the Vsurer is like. To what shal I like[n] this generatio[n]? They are like a Butlers box: for as all the counters at last come to the Butler; so all the mony at last commeth to the Vsurer, ten after ten, & ten after ten, and ten to ten, til at last he receiue not only ten for an hundreth, but an hundreth for ten. This is the onely difference, that the Butler can receiue no more than he deliuered: but the Vsurer receiueth more than he deliuereth.

And there is this 1628 witticism by John Taylor. Taylor (1578–1653) dubbed himself “The Water Poet.” He was a Thames waterman by trade, but a very successful poet and writer on the side. Widely read in his own day, he is virtually forgotten today. Literary elites like Ben Jonson criticized his language as vulgar and common, but that didn’t seem to affect his popular appeal. He made this comparison of parliament to a butler’s box:

One asked a fellow what the Westminster Hall was like; Marry, quoth the other, it is like a Butlers Box at Christmas amongst gamesters, for whosoeuer loseth, the Box will be sure to bee a winner.

But by the time Taylor had written this, the use of Christmas boxes had spread and no longer was just a practice among gamblers. The earliest reference to servants in general, in this case apprentices, getting a Christmas box appears in Randle Cotgrave’s 1611 French-English dictionary:

Pillemaille, as Palemaille; or such a box as our London Prentices beg withal before Christmas.

And by the middle of the next century we start seeing uses of Boxing Day in reference to the day after Christmas. The earliest I’m aware of is in testimony given in a London criminal trial on 17 January 1743. Three men had been accused of mugging a man, and the witness’s testimony helped exonerate them as none of them matched the witness’s description of the mugger:

Tuesday in Christmas Week, about Eight in the Evening, I was coming over this broad Place, and saw a Man come up to this lame Man, and knock him down—It was the Day after Boxing Day—It was a black, well-set Man, in his own Hair, that knocked him down, and then he took him by the Collar; with that he cried out, You will throttle me. I saw him take a Stock off his Neck, and put it into his Pocket, and then I heard him say, He has took my Stock, my Clasp, and my Money.

And the London General Advertiser newspaper ran this ad on 25 December 1747:

This Day is Publish’d,
Price 6d. each Plain, 1 s. Colour’d,
CHRISMASS [sic] GAMBOLS, representing
The Humours of Christmas and Boxing Day, in two Plates neatly Engrav’d.

Today, Boxing Day is chiefly celebrated by shopping at post-holiday sales—a practice that is also celebrated in the United States, although the term Boxing Day isn’t used there.

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Sources:

Cotgrave, Randle. A Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues. London: Adam Islip, 1611, s.v. pillemaille. Early English Books Online (EEBO).

General Advertiser (London), 25 December 1747, 3/1. NewspaperArchive.com.

Old Bailey Proceedings Online. “Trial of Richard Stroud, Henry Stroud, Edward Taylor. Violent Theft: Highway Robbery” (t17430114-29), 17 January 1743.

Oxford English Dictionary, third edition, March 2021, s.v. Boxing Day, n., box, n.2., box, v.2., boxing, n.1.; March 2020, s.v. Christmas Box, n.; September 2018, s.v. butler’s box, n.

Smith, Henry. The Examination of Usury in Two Sermons. London: R. Field for T. Man, 1591, 30–31. Early English Books Online (EEBO).

A Speciall Grace, Appointed to Haue Been Said After a Banket at Yorke. London, John Kingston for Nicholas England, 1558, n.p. Early English Books Online (EEBO).

Taylor, John. Wit and Mirth. London: Henrie Gosson, 1628, item 15, sig. B3r. Early English Books Online (EEBO).

Image credit: Anonymous photographer, 2019. Wikimedia Commons. Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license.

Christmas / Xmas

Queen Victoria, Prince Albert, and children, 1848

18 December 2023

Christmas has a rather straightforward and obvious etymology. It is Christ’s mass, the religious service and festival associated with Jesus’s birthday. The word dates to the late Old English period. The Old English cristesmæsse isn’t found in any extant text written prior to c. 1000, but it’s likely to be older and those older uses simply didn’t survive.

One of the earliest uses is by Wulfstan, the Archbishop of York (d. 1023). The word appears in a short piece of his entitled Be cristendome (About Christianity) that outlines the payments a good Christian makes to the Church:

And leohtgescot gelæste man be wite to Cristes mæssan and to candelmæssan and to eastron, do oftor se, ðe wylle.

(And one should pay the light-fee as payment at Christmas and Candelmas and Easter, or more often if one desires.)

The leohtgescot (light-fee) was a contribution to keep the lights burning in the church, the medieval equivalent of paying the church’s electrical bill. (Yes, the irony of a text titled About Christianity being about tithes and offerings is not lost on the astute reader. Those modern televangelists begging for money are simply the latest in a long tradition.)

The abbreviation Xmas is not an attempt to remove the Christ from Christmas. The X got its start as the Greek letter chi, the first letter in Christ’s name. It was common practice in medieval manuscripts to abbreviate Christ’s name with an X or XP, the P or rho being the second letter. For example, in the entry for the year 1101, copied c. 1121–31, in the Peterborough manuscript of the Old English Chronicle we find:

Her on þisu[m] geare to xpes mæssan heold se cyng heanrig his hired on westmynstre.

(Here in this year at XP’s mass King Henry held his court in Westminster.)

The abbreviated form Xmas appears later. The OED has a 1551 citation for X’tenmas and a 1660 citation for Xtmasse, showing that the X is indeed an abbreviation of Christ. That dictionary has a citation for Xmas itself from 1721.

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Sources:

Dictionary of Old English: A to G Online, University of Toronto, 2007, s. v. cristes-mæsse, n.

Oxford English Dictionary, third edition, March 2020, s. v. Christmas, n.; Xmas, n.; second edition, 1989, s.v. X, n.

Peterborough Chronicle for the year 1101 (Bodleian Library MS. Laud Misc. 636, fol. 74r). Digital Bodleian.

Wulftan. “Be Cristendome.” In Arthur Napier, ed. Wulfstan. Sammlung Englischer Denkmäler in Kritischen Ausgaben, vol. 4. Berlin: Weidmannsche, 1883, 310–11 at 311. HathiTrust Digital Archive.

Image credit: Unknown artist, 1848. Public domain image.

lanthanum

A chunk of lanthanum

15 December 2023

Lanthanum is a soft, ductile, silvery-white metal with atomic number 57 and the symbol La. Although it is classified as a “rare earth” element, it is actually quite abundant on Earth, over three times as abundant as lead. The name comes from the Greek λανθάνειν (lanthanein, escape notice, latent) because it was first found in the same ore in which cerium, which is next to it on the periodic table, had been discovered, and because they have similar properties it was difficult to discriminate between the two. Lanthanum is also the eponym of the lanthanide series of elements, which run from lanthanum to Lutetium (atomic number 71).

Lanthanum was discovered by Carl Gustaf Mosander in 1839, but he did not initially publish his results. Instead, the discovery was first mentioned in a letter by Jöns Jacob Berzelius, the co-discoverer of cerium, to Théophile-Jules Pelouze. Mosander had studied under Berzelius and had succeeded him as professor of chemistry at the Karolinska Institute. The two also shared a house in Stockholm, so Berzelius was well acquainted with his former student’s work. Pelouze made the discovery known at the French Academy of Sciences in March 1839:

M. Berzélius annonce à M. Pelouze, dans la même letter, que M. Mosander vient d'examiner de nouveau la cérite de Bastnas, mineral dans lequel le cérium a été découvert, il y a trente-six ans, et y a trouvé un nouveau métal.

L'oxide de cérium, extrait de la cérite par le procédé ordinaire, contient à peu près les deux cinquièmes de son poids de l'oxide du nouveau métal qui ne change que peu les propriétés du cérium, et qui s'y tient pour ainsi dire caché. Cette raison a engagé M. Mosander à donner au nouveau métal le nom de Lantane.

(Mr. Berzélius announces to Mr. Pelouze, in the same letter, that Mr. Mosander has just re-examined the cerite of Bastnas, a mineral in which cerium was discovered, thirty-six years ago, and found a new metal.

The oxide of cerium, extracted from cerite by the ordinary process, contains about two-fifths of its weight of the oxide of the new metal which changes but little the properties of cerium, and which remains so to say hidden. This reason prompted Mr. Mosander to give the new metal the name Lantane.)

Mosander finally published his findings in 1842, but that article does not discuss the naming of the element.

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Sources:

Miśkowiec, Pawel. “Name Game: The Naming History of the Chemical Elements: Part 2—Turbulent Nineteenth Century.” Foundations of Chemistry, 8 December 2022. DOI: 10.1007/s10698-022-09451-w.

Mosander, C. G. “Något om Cer och Lanthan.” Forhandlinger ved de Skandinaviske Naturforskeres Möde, 3, 1842, 387–98. HathiTrust Digital Archive.

“Nouveau Métal.” Compte Rendu des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences, 8, 11 March 1839, 356–57 at 356. HathiTrust Digital Archive.

Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, 1989, s.v. lanthanum, n.

Photo credit: W. Oelen, 2006. Wikimedia Commons. Used under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

Santa Claus

13 December 2023

The name Santa Claus is a dialectal variation on the Dutch Sint Klaas. The Sint, or Sante in the Dutch dialect of early New York, obviously corresponds to the English Saint, and the Klaas is somewhat less obviously a hypocoristic form of Nicholas. While in English we typically abbreviate the name as Nick, in Dutch and German it is the final element that is used, resulting in Klaas or Klaus. So Santa Claus is Saint Nicholas.

Almost nothing is known about the historical Saint Nicholas, and it is even possible that he never actually existed. The only thing about him that is known with any degree of confidence is that he was (probably) a fourth-century bishop of Myra, in Asia Minor. Everything else that is “known” about him can be relegated to the status of myth. The most famous story about him, and the one that associates him with gift-giving, is his supposed gift of dowries to three poor, young women in order to keep them from being forced into prostitution. But this, like all of the other stories about him, is a later folkloric addition and was originally ascribed to earlier, pagan mythical figures, only later transferred onto the saint. Saint Nicholas’s feast day is 6 December, hence his association with Yuletide festivities.

Santa Claus is originally a distinctly Americanized and secularized incarnation of the saint. The name arose in colonial New York, a region steeped in Dutch tradition—New York was originally New Amsterdam and ceded to the British and renamed in 1664. The first citation of the name Santa Claus that I’m aware of is from the 20 December 1773 edition of the New York Gazette and Weekly Mercury:

Last Monday the Anniversary of St. Nicholas, otherwise called St. A Claus, was celebrated at Protestant Hall, at Mr. Waldron’s, where a great number of the Sons of that ancient Saint celebrated the Day with great Joy and Festivity.

And we see the form Santaclaus in Washington Irving’s Salmagundi of 25 January 1808:

In his days, according to my grandfather, were first in vented those notable cakes, hight new-year cookies, which originally were impressed on one side with the honest burley countenance of the illustrious Rip, and on the other with that of the noted St. Nicholas, vulgarly called Santaclaus—of all the saints in the kalendar the most venerated by true hollanders, and their unsophisticated descendants. These cakes are to this time given on the first of January, to all visitors, together with a glass of cherry-bounce, or raspberry-brandy.

The 1823 poem A Visit from St. Nicholas by Clement C. Moore, another New Yorker, although it does not use the name Santa Claus, created much of the modern lore about the character, including his fur clothing, being fat with a “little round belly,” and his sleigh with “eight tiny reindeer.” But there are differences, notably in that the St. Nicholas of the poem was tiny and elfin. In 1863 cartoonist Thomas Nast depicted Santa Claus in much the way we see him today for the cover of Harper’s magazine. The cover shows Santa visiting Union troops during the US Civil War. In 1881, Nast would depict a more refined image of Santa, seen above, again in the pages of Harper’s.

Like many other aspects of American culture, Santa Claus has been exported and has supplanted or co-exists with other conceptions of St. Nicholas and Christmas gift-givers around the world.

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Sources:

Irving, Washington (pseud. Launcelot Langstaff). “From My Elbow-Chair.” Salmagundi, 2.10, 25 January 1808, 407–08. HathiTrust Digital Archive.

“New-York, December 20.” New-York Gazette and the Weekly Mercury, 20 December 1773, 3/1. Readex: America’s Historical Newspapers.

Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, 1989, s.v. Santa Claus, n.

Image credits: Thomas Nast, “Merry Old Santa Claus,” Harper’s Weekly, 1 January 1881, Wikimedia Commons; Thomas Nast, “Santa Claus in Camp,” Harper’s Weekly, 3 January 1863, Wikimedia Commons. Both images are in the public domain.