Word of the Month: Space

March 7, 2020

1 April 2003

On 1 February, the space shuttle Columbia and her crew of seven were lost during their return to earth. In the weeks since, news reports have treated the public with detailed insights into NASA and the US space program and exposed millions to jargon terms used by astronauts and aeronautical engineers. So to honor the seven who lost their lives in the exploration of the heavens, our word of the month is:

Space, n., the expanse of the universe beyond the earth’s atmosphere. This sense was first used in 1667 by Milton in Paradise Lost. From the Old French espace.

The following is a sampling of technical jargon and NASA slang terms that have either been used in the news reports on the shuttle tragedy or have been the subject of inquiry by readers of the web site.

Ablation, n., the removal of material in small increments. In aeronautical use since 1951 to mean the removal of surface material via heat as an object enters the atmosphere. Also a verb, to ablate, and an adjective, ablative.

A-OK, adj., a variant of OK, 1961. The exact origin is uncertain. Some claim it means all-OK. Others contend that it was coined by Col. John A. “Shorty” Powers, a public information officer and the “Voice of Mercury Control” because A-OK was more likely to be understood through radio static than a simple OK.

Apollo, prop. n., designation for the third type of US manned spacecraft, flown 1968-75. Project Apollo was the program to put a man on the moon. After that project ended in 1972, the spacecraft was used in the Skylab missions, the first space station, and in the Apollo-Soyuz project, the first joint US-Russian space flight. After the Greek god.

Astronaut, n., a person who travels in space, from the Greek astro- (star) + naut (sailor), 1929, after aeronaut. Also cosmonaut, which is used especially for a Russian astronaut, from the Greek or Russian cosmos, universe.

Atlantis, prop. n., name of the fourth space shuttle orbiter, OV-104. Named for the famed research vessel used by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute from 1930-66.

Boost, n. & v., power that lifts an air- or spacecraft, in aeronautical use since 1931. Deboost, n & v., the slowing of a spacecraft via a retrorocket or deceleration maneuver, 1966. Also booster, n., an auxiliary engine or rocket that gives a rocket initial speed, 1944.

Burn, v. & n., to fire a rocket engine, the firing of a rocket engine, 1964.

Canaveral, Cape, prop. n., site of the Kennedy Space Center on the Atlantic coast of Florida. Launch site for all US manned space flights and US satellites in equatorial orbit. From the Spanish for canebrake or thicket of reeds. Called Cape Kennedy from 1963-73, before reverting to its traditional name.

Challenger, prop. n., name of the second space shuttle orbiter, OV-99. Challenger was destroyed on launch of the 51st shuttle mission on 28 January 1986 with the loss of all seven astronauts on board.

Columbia, prop. n., name of the first space shuttle orbiter, OV-102. Named for Christopher Columbus. Columbia was destroyed on re-entry on 1 February 2003 with the loss of all seven astronauts on board.

De-spin, v., to stop a satellite from spinning, 1960.

Discovery, prop. n., name of the third space shuttle orbiter, OV-103. Named for one of Captain James Cook’s ships.

Dock, v., to join one spacecraft with another, 1951. From the older sense of to bring a ship alongside a dock, 1600.

Endeavour, prop. n., name of the fifth space shuttle orbiter, replacement for Challenger, OV-105. Named for the first ship commanded by Captain James Cook, hence the British spelling of the name.

ESA, abbrev., European Space Agency.

Gemini, prop. n., designation for the second type of US manned spacecraft, flown 1965-66. From the Latin for twins, after the fact that Gemini was a two-man spacecraft.

Glitch, n. & v., a malfunction, 1962, from electronics jargon for an electrical surge. Ultimately from the German glitschen, to slip, probably via Yiddish.

Hubble, prop. n., an orbiting telescope, named for astronomer Edwin Hubble (1889-1953). Launched in 1990.

Intermodal, adj., relating to the transport of cargo that uses multiple modes of transport during the journey, NASA jargon from 1963.

Launch, v., n., & adj., relating to the lift-off of a rocket, 1952, from the sense of launching a sailing vessel.

Mach, n., a measurement of speed corresponding to the speed of sound, Mach 2 being twice the speed of sound, Mach 3 three-times the speed of sound, etc. Named for Austrian physicist Ernst Mach (1838-1916).

Man-rate, v., to certify a vehicle as safe for manned flight, 1963. Also, an adjective, man-rated.

Mercury, prop. n., designation for the first type of US manned spacecraft, flown 1961-63. After the Roman messenger god.

Microgravity, n., a condition where gravitational influences are very weak, specifically gravitational forces on board a spacecraft in orbit. (True zero-gravity is impracticable, imperfections in the orbit and gravitational pull from the sun, other planets and objects, and the spacecraft itself still exists). In use from 1975.

Mir, prop. n., a Russian space station that was in orbit 1986-99. Mir is the Russian word for peace.

Mission, n., an operational flight of an air- or spacecraft, 1929, ultimately from the Latin missionem, the act of sending something.

MIT, abbrev., Mishap Investigation Team, NASA and US military jargon for a group of engineers that investigate the causes of an aircraft or spacecraft accident. From 1990.

NACA, abbrev., National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics. Predecessor US government agency to NASA, 1922.

NASA, abbrev., National Aeronautics and Space Agency, US government agency charged with managing the civilian space program. 1958.

Nominal, adj., average, normal, within acceptable limits, 1966 for this sense. This sense of the word is unique to aviation and space jargon. The general sense refers to things having to do with names. There is a sense meaning in name only, that differences are insignificant. This sense is conflated with normal in space jargon. Off-nominal means outside acceptable limits.

Off-Scale Low (or High), adj., in reference to an instrument reading that goes outside measurable limits. Low or high refers to the vector when the instrument stopped functioning.

Orbit, n. & v., the path or course of a satellite around an object, 1696. To fly in a circle, 1946. To fly as a satellite, 1951. From the Latin orbis, wheel or circle. De-orbit, v., to leave an orbit and descend, 1962. Also used as a noun and as an adjective, especially in the phrase de-orbit burn.

Orbiter, n., a spacecraft or part of a spacecraft that flies in an orbit, 1958. Specifically, the space shuttle minus the external fuel tank and solid rocket boosters.

Payload, n., the part of an aircraft’s load from which revenue is derived or mission objectives accomplished, pay + load, 1930.

Plasma, n., a gas consisting of positive ions and free negative electrons in roughly equal numbers, usually achieved by high heat, burning gases, 1928. From the Latin plasma, a thing molded or shaped.

Progress, prop. n., an unmanned Russian cargo spacecraft used to carry supplies and material into orbit, based on the Soyuz design, 1978. Calque of the Russian name.

Pushing the envelope, v.phr., to exceed design limits. From mathematical and engineering jargon where an envelope is the locus of intersections in a series of curves.

Re-entry, n., the return of a spacecraft into the earth’s atmosphere, 1948.

Retro, n., a rocket that slows the forward momentum of a spacecraft, causing it to fall into a lower orbit or re-enter the atmosphere, 1961. A clipping of retro-rocket, 1957. From the Latin retro, backwards.

Satellite, n., an object that revolves around another, larger one. From the Latin satellitem, attendant or guard. This sense coined by astronomer Johannes Kepler in 1611. English use is from 1665.

Screw the pooch, c.phr., to commit catastrophic error, to fail, 1962. Euphemistic formulation of fuck the dog. From WWI army slang originally meaning to loaf, to idle, to fool around. Associated especially with aviation jargon because of its use in Tom Wolfe’s 1979 book, The Right Stuff.

Shuttle, n., a reusable spacecraft, more fully space shuttle. From 1960 in science fiction; in NASA usage since 1969. From WWII aviation usage denoting aircraft that made repeated flights between two points. Ultimately from the device used in weaving that passes the thread of the weft to and fro between the threads of the warp, 1338 from the Old English scytel.

Soft landing, n., a landing of a spacecraft where no damage is sustained, 1958.

Soyuz, prop. n., name of a Russian manned spacecraft, 1960. First flight was in 1966. Soyuz is Russian for union.

STS, abbrev., Space Transportation System, NASA term for the space shuttle, 1972. Shuttle missions are designated STS-#. The final flight of Columbia was STS-107, the 107th space shuttle mission.

Vandenberg, prop. n., US Air Force base on the California coast. Launch site for US satellites in polar orbits. Named after General Hoyt S. Vandenberg, Air Force Chief of Staff, 1958.

Zero-G, n. and adj., a clipping of zero gravity, a condition where there is no significant gravitational forces on a body. Zero-gravity was coined by Arthur C. Clarke in 1951; he coined zero-g in 1952.

Book Reviews: Dog Days and Dandelions & Coined by God

March 7, 2020

1 March 2003

This month we take a look at two new trade etymology books, Dog Days and Dandelions by Martha Barnette and Coined by God by Stanley Malless and Jeffrey McQuain. Both are well-written, well-researched works that look at the origins of words connected with a specific topic. But both books suffer from a common defect of etymology books, organization by alphabetical order, a defect that makes what could have been interesting topics that shed light into how English creates and adopts words and turns them into volumes of etymological trivia. Both books are fine works for what they are, but one is a bit disappointed when one considers what they could have been.

On the surface, one might think that alphabetical order would be a natural arrangement for books on etymology. After all, that is how dictionaries are organized and it makes finding individual words quick and easy. But while alphabetical order is appropriate for comprehensive reference tomes like dictionaries, it is not the best format for other works. Alphabetical order masks common themes and patterns of etymological change. Other formats sacrifice the ease of looking up a particular word or phrase, but this is easily addressed with an index.

In Dog Days and Dandelions logophile Martha Barnette, editor of www.funwords.com, examines the origins of some 300 words that have their roots in animal names and terms, many quite surprising. For instance, few would suspect that helicopter has as one of it roots the Greek word for wing, pteron, also found in pterodactyl and apteryx, or that sleuth is a clipping of sleuth-hound, another word for bloodhound. Other words in the book are more obviously animal-related, leviathan, cowslip, and shrewd for example.

Beyond the straight etymological origins, which in most cases could be discovered by looking in a dictionary, Barnette goes beyond etymology to place the words in historical context. She not only tells us that the word tuxedo comes from P’tuksit, a name for a tribe of Delaware Indians that means wolf-footed, but she also gives us a brief history of the formal wear. In gerrymander, derived from Massachusetts governor Elbridge Gerry and salamander, she gives us a brief look at the American system of political apportionment and the artwork of Gilbert Stuart. These contextual additions provide interesting tidbits of information for the reader and are perhaps the book’s chief attraction.

In the entry for doggerel, Barnette mentions how dogs have been held in low regard throughout history and this is reflected in such words. But it is with comments like this that we see the flaw in alphabetical organization. If the book had been organized thematically, such insights could be explored in more depth. A comparison of different “dog” words, for example, would be very interesting, but the alphabetical organization militates against such analysis. Another organizational option would have been to arrange the entries chronologically, to trace how borrowings and coinages reflect changing views of animals over time. Similarly, a chapter on Linnaean taxonomy and how the Latin scientific names for animal species are determined would be interesting. The alphabetical format reduces the work to a book of trivia when it could have been so much more.

Coined by God, by Stanley Malless and Jeffrey McQuain, is a similar book, albeit on a very different topic. Malless and McQuain examine 130 words and phrases that first appear in early English translations of the Bible, notably the Wycliffe (1382), Tyndale (1525), Coverdale (1535), Geneva (1560), and King James (1611) Bibles. These versions of the Bible cover one of the greatest periods of change in the English language—the shift from Middle to Modern English. Wycliffe was a contemporary of Chaucer and the King James (Authorized) Bible was written during Shakespeare’s lifetime. The impact these translations had on the English language is difficult to overestimate.

Malless’s and McQuain’s entries include both the prosaic (liquid, Ezekiel 44:30, Wycliffe) and the poetic (stranger in a strange land, Exodus 2:22, Tyndale), religious terms (Passover, Exodus 12:11, Tyndale) and the mundane (the verb to brain, Isaiah 66:3, Wycliffe).

Coined by God goes beyond simply presenting the words and phrases and their origins in Scripture. Malless and McQuain also trace the use of these words into the modern era. They discuss, for example, pillar of salt (Genesis 19:26, Tyndale), which is used as the title of a Shirley Jackson short story and ministry (Ezekiel 44:13, Wycliffe), which is used in Coleridge’s poem “Frost at Midnight.” Not all the modern uses are literary. The authors frequently cite pop culture references that use the Biblical words, such as the Rolling Stones 1968 song Salt of the Earth (Matthew 5:13, Wycliffe) and the use of treasure (Isaiah 39:6, Wycliffe) in the 1977 finale of the Mary Tyler Moore Show. This tracing of use of the words and phrases in literature and popular entertainment through the years shows the impact and significance that these Biblical terms have had.

But again, the alphabetical format militates against some of the analysis and comparisons that could have been done. Organizing the entries by translation, for example, instead of alphabetically would permit an analysis of the relative contributions each translation had on the English language.

Although Malless and McQuain do take some steps to overcome this problem. Many of the entries discuss how the words and phrases are translated in the other versions. For example Tyndale coined scapegoat in Leviticus 16:8, but Malless and McQuain discuss how the earlier Wycliffe Bible used “goat that shall be sent out” for the same passage. The book includes several indices organized by different principles, one organized by translation (cross-referenced to the books of the Bible) and the other by books of the Bible (cross-referenced by translation). Other back matter includes a chronology of Biblical translations that is helpful in placing the translations in historical context.

Both Dog Days and Dandelions and Coined by God are accurate, solid presentations of the etymological information related to their respective topics. Both also provide additional information, Barnette interesting tidbits of information on related subjects and Malless and McQuain leaning toward a more literary bent with information on how the words and phrases have been used since their Biblical coinages. But one cannot help wondering that if they had been organized differently, they would have been so much more.

Dog Days and Dandelions, by Martha Barnette; Hardcover; 200 pages; St. Martin’s Press; February 2003; ISBN: 0312280726; $24.95.

Coined by God, by Stanley Malless and Jeffrey McQuain; Hardcover; 221 pages; W.W. Norton & Company; February 2003; ISBN: 0393020452; $23.95.

American Dialect: African-American Speech

March 7, 2020

1 March 2003

Our study of American dialect cannot be solely based on regional differences. While regional distinctions are perhaps the most significant influences on the way we speak, other distinctions play a role as well and one of these distinctions is race and ethnicity. For most ethnic groups, patterns of speech are quickly assimilated into the local speech, becoming indistinguishable from the regional dialect, except perhaps for some specific cultural terms.

But African-American speech is different in that it transcends regional differences. African Americans have distinctive patterns of speech that are recognizable regardless of region. That is not to say that there are not regional differences among African Americans, but the similarities in the dialect across the nation are strong.

Many consider African American speech to be lazy or corrupted English. This is not the case. While in some cases the grammar and pronunciation is simple when compared to standard English, in other cases African American speech is much more complex. It is every bit as rule based and grammatical as standard English is. It is just that the rules and grammar are different.

It is often believed that African-American speech is influenced by African speech patterns and grammar, but more recent scholarship has discounted this. All of the characteristics of African American grammar and pronunciation are found in various British dialects. It seems more likely that these patterns were picked up by African Americans in close proximity with poor immigrants from the British Isles, either as neighbors or as overseers of slaves.

African influence on the dialect appears to be restricted to a small number of West African words and perhaps to the cadences of formal African American oratory.

Southern Aspects to African American Speech
African-American speech shares many similarities with Southern speech. For much of American history, most blacks lived in the South and in the 20th century when significant migrations of blacks to the North and West began, blacks continued to live in their own communities, retaining their traditional patterns of speech instead of adopting the speech of Northern and Western whites.

Like Southern speech, African-American speech is a non-rhotic dialect. It drops the R after vowels. So more becomes /mo/ and gangster become /gang-sta/.

African-American speech shares some of the Southern vowel changes as well. The short E is pronounced as a short I, so pen is pronounced as /pin/. In addition, the long I is pronounced as /ah/, rice becomes /rahs/ and nice is /nahs/. Similarly, the short I is often transformed into a diphthong, bell is pronounced as /bale/ and the name Montel is /mon-tail/.

African American Pronunciation
Not all of African American pronunciation is Southern, however. Some is quite distinctive to blacks. Consonant clusters at the end of words, or example, are often clipped. Stand becomes /stan/ and just becomes /jus/, but this is not universally observed. There is a complex set of rules that governs which consonant sounds are dropped and when. One major exception to the general rule is that P, T, and K are retained when they follow either an M or N. Hence junk remains /junk/.

Another pronunciation specific to African American is the substitution of /d/, /t/, /v/, and /f/, for the /th/ sound. /d/ substitutes for the voiced /th/ at the beginning of words and /t/ for the voiceless. So this becomes /dis/ and thin becomes /tin/. At the end of words /v/ and /f/ serve the same respective functions. /v/ replaces the voiced /th/, both becomes /bove/, and /f/ replaces the voiceless /th/, tooth becomes /toof/.

Finally, one word that is quite distinctive in African American pronunciation is the word aunt. Here African Americans follow the practice of traditional New England or eastern Virginia pronunciation and use an /ah/ sound at the beginning of the word.

African American Grammar
African American dialect has some distinctive rules of grammar as well. Perhaps most noticeable is the use of the verb to be to denote a habitual action. Standard English has no habitual tense, but African American English does. The sentence, “he be walking by,” does not necessarily mean that his walking by at this moment. Rather, it means that he walks by here frequently and if we stay long enough we should expect to see him.

Similarly, been is not used in the perfect tense, to denote a completed action. Instead, it refers to something that is continuing. “They been happy” means they have been happy in the past and still are happy at the present.

Another characteristic of African American grammar is the dropping the verb to be. Where other dialects might use a contraction like, he’s or she’s, African American omits the verb altogether. So, what’s up? becomes what up?

African American also has some unique uses of the verb done. For one thing, it is used to denote past tense. “He done come” means “he came.” Another use is to denote the future perfect tense. This is done with the form be done, as in “I be done with this by the time you get back.”

Finally, African American often drops the S in the third person singular and adds it to the first person singular. “He talks to me” becomes “he talk to me” and “I make a lot of money” becomes “I makes a lot of money.”

Code Switching
Of course, not every black American has all these characteristics in their speech. Like any dialect, there are regional and class differences. And most African Americans are perfectly capable of speaking in the standard American dialect. Many in fact switch back and forth as the need arises, a function called code switching.

Most people, black or white, engage in some degree of code switching. We shift our manner of speaking to match the social circumstances. Code switching in America is perhaps most noticeable in the Hispanic community, where it is not uncommon to hear alternating sentences of Spanish and English in a conversation. The same is true with any dialect, people alternate between the standard and the dialectical forms. This is more noticeable with dialects, like African American, that differ significantly from the standard than ones that do not.

So, while most African Americans will not use all these features all the time, they will use them at least some of the time.

African American Vocabulary
The following is just a sampling of some of the terms used in African American dialect.

All that, adj., excellent, superb. Hip hop in origin, 1991.

Ashy, adj., whitish or grayish skin due to exposure to wind and cold, 1952.

Back, n., the buttocks, especially those of an attractive woman, 1992. Often found in the phrase my baby got back (my girl has a nice butt).

Bad, adj., 1) tough, formidable, 1855; 2) good, excellent, 1897.

Blood, n., an African American, from the sense of shared ancestry, often used to denote a close friend, 1965.

Bomb, da, n., something superb or excellent, 1974.

Booty, n., 1) the buttocks, 1928, 2) the vagina, hence also copulation, sex, 1925. Also booty call, a summons, usually late at night to come home or over to a woman’s apartment.

Bro, n., an African American man, 1970, clipping of brother, 1910.

Chill, v., relax, calm down, 1979, also chill out, take a chill pill, chillin’.

Chump, n., fool, dupe, 1876. Also a verb meaning to trick or hoodwink, 1930, or to belittle, make fun of, 1979. Chump change, meaning a small amount of money, is from 1967.

Dozens, n., a verbal exchange of ritual, highly exaggerated, and often rhymed insults, often making reference to another’s mother, 1915. The object is to display verbal dexterity while not losing one’s emotional control. Often play the dozens.

Gangbanger, n., a member of a street gang, 1969. Also banger.

Gangster, n., 1) one who flouts convention and rejects white norms and societal values, 1960s, 2) a marijuana cigarette, a joint, 1960.

Go down, v., to happen, to take place, 1946.

Hawk, n., a cold, winter wind, 1946. Chiefly used in and around Chicago.

Hip Hop, n. & adj., urban, youth culture, often associated with rap music, 1982. The origin is uncertain; various DJs have claimed to have coined it; it may refer to the use of the nonsense words “hip” and “hop” in rap lyrics, or it may be from hip (cool, fashionable) + hop (dance).

Homey, n., a person from one’s hometown or neighborhood, 1944, a clipping of homeboy (1899) and homegirl (1934).

Jones, n. & v., an intense craving or desire, to desire, 1970, originally the cravings caused by drug withdrawal, 1962. Of unknown origin.

Jump, v., to suddenly change behavior, usually in phrases, to jump salty (become angry), to jump bad (to become aggressive), etc., 1938.

Jump Street, From, c.phr., from the start, 1972, also from jump city.

Kitchen, n., the nape of the neck, hair at the nape of the neck, 1974; unknown origin, possibly from the Scots kinch, a rope or noose around the neck used to control a horse.

Mack, n. & v., a pimp (1903), a flatterer or deceptive talker (1962), a ladies man (1991), to act as a pimp, 1964), to make a sexual advance, to flirt (1968), to use flattery and deceptive talk (1991), to swagger (1963), to kiss (1978). Also mack daddy. Probably from the French maquerelle. There is an older slang term mackerel, meaning pimp, but there is a gap in usage that makes this unlikely.

My bad, interj., a form of apology, “I’m sorry.”

Pad, n., an apartment, abode, 1938. Originally a term for a bed, a place to sleep. 1718.

Salty, adj., angry, ill-tempered, 1936. Often jump salty.

Wolf, v., to make fun of, to criticize, to threaten, 1966. Cf. woof. Also to buy a wolf ticket, to believe the criticism or threats. From barking dogs at night.

Woof, v., to talk aimlessly, 1934. Woofing, aimless talk, 1942. From barking dogs at night.

Word!, interj., a statement of affirmation, “that is true,” 1986. Also word up!

You go, girl!, interj., a statement of encouragement and affirmation to a woman, 1992.

Word of the Month: Military and Navy

March 7, 2020

1 March 2003

The United States and Britain are deploying large numbers of soldiers, sailors, and airmen to the Persian Gulf. The United States and its allies are gearing up for another war with Iraq, so the words of the month are Military, adj., pertaining to soldiers, from the Latin miles or soldier, 1585, and Navy, n., a fleet or force of warships, from the Latin navis or ship, c. 1330.

We will take a look at some of the words that are used by and about the military, some official, some slang. Most of the technical or official terms dealt with here relate the US military. The definitions used by foreign militaries may be somewhat different and foreign militaries may employ synonyms for the words discussed here.

Military/Naval Ranks
The armed forces are very hierarchical organizations and the ranks of individual members of the armed forces are significant. The following are the ranks and titles used in US military and naval forces, but most armed forces around the world use very similar rank structures.

The US uses two distinct set of titles for officer ranks, one used by the Army, Air Force, and Marine Corps and the other by the Navy and Coast Guard.

A Warrant Officer is traditionally distinguished from other officers in that he is appointed via a warrant as opposed to a commission, although warrant officers in the US military now hold commissions. The term dates to 1696. In the US Armed Forces, a warrant officer is usually a senior sergeant who possesses special skills (physician’s assistant, helicopter pilot, supply specialist, etc.) and is granted officer’s rank. The US Air Force does not have warrant officers.

The rank lieutenant is from the French, lieu (place) + tenant (holding), one who acts in the place of another, a junior officer who acts on behalf of a senior commander, c. 1375. The naval equivalent of ensign was originally a military, not naval rank. It originally referred to a soldier who carried an ensign, or flag (1513), and later to a junior infantry officer. Naval usage is from 1708.

Captain dates back to Middle English and is ultimately from the Latin capitaneus, chief, head man, from caput, head, c. 1380.

Major is a clipping of sergeant-major. In days past sergeant-major was not an enlisted rank, but a rank above that of an army captain. From 1643.
The naval rank of commander dates to c. 1450.

The rank of colonel is ultimately from the Italian colonna, or column, from the commander of a column of troops, 1548.

The adjective general is traditionally appended to ranks to indicate a higher ranking officer, the use dates to 1576 (generall capytayne). A brigadier general (1 star) originally commanded a brigade, hence the name, although modern brigades are commanded by colonels. The rank dates to 1678. Like major, the rank of major general (2 stars) is a clipping of sergeant-major general. Major general has been in use since 1642, sergeant-major general since c.1595. The rank of lieutenant general (3 stars) dates to c.1489.

Many armies use the rank of marshal or field marshal to designate the highest ranking officers. Marshal comes from the Old French mareschal, originally one who attended horses. Its use as a rank of a high functionary in the royal court (Marshal of England) dates to 1258. The modern rank of field marshal is modeled on the German feldmarschall.

The US military does not use the rank of marshal, using in its place the rank of general of the army or general of the air force. The modern use of this rank and the use of 5-stars as its insignia was authorized in 1944. It is commonly thought that the US military adopted this name, instead of the rank field marshal, because George C. Marshall did not want to be known as “Marshal Marshall.” While Marshall may have objected to that moniker, the US military title of general of the army is much older. Three Civil War generals (Grant, Sherman, Sheridan) held the rank as did one World War I general (Pershing). Four WWII-era generals held the rank of general of the army (Marshall, Eisenhower, MacArthur, and Bradley) and there has been one general of the air force (Arnold). No one has held the rank since Omar Bradley was appointed to it in 1950.

The naval rank of admiral is ultimately from the Arabic amir-al-ma, commander of the water. English use of the rank dates to 1460, although the term is used as far back as c.1205 in reference to Arab military commanders. The rank of rear admiral dates to 1589 and is a reference to the commander of ships at the rear of a line of battle. Vice admiral dates to 1520. The rank of Fleet Admiral (5 stars) was created in 1944. Four men, all WWII admirals, have held the rank (King, Leahy, Nimitz, and Halsey). The US Navy used to have the rank of commodore, a word of uncertain origin but that may be from the Dutch kommandeur (1695). A commodore ranked between a captain and a rear admiral. In the Royal Navy, commodore is not a permanent rank, rather being used to denote a senior captain in charge of a squadron of ships.

Enlisted ranks are more complex than those of officers, differing with each service, often having multiple titles for the same rank, and little consistency among foreign armies. Etymologically, however, the terms are simpler. The etymologies of seaman and airman are self-evident. Not so with private, whose common meaning has changed from the original. The word is from the Latin privatus, meaning deprived of or without public office. A private soldier, therefore, is one without rank or position. The term private soldier dates to 1579.

A corporal is the lowest rank of non-commissioned officer, or NCO. The word corporal is ultimately from the Italian caporale, one who leads a corps or body of troops. A lance corporal is a lesser corporal. The lance refers to the old weapon and has been used as an adjunct to various military ranks over the years. The rank lancepesade, from the Italian lance spezzata, literally broken lance, dates to 1578. By 1786 this rank had been altered to lance corporal.

The backbone of any army are the sergeants. That term comes, via the Old French sergent, from the Latin servientem or servant. The word came to be applied to common soldiers around 1300. The modern use of a non-commissioned officer dates to 1548.

A first sergeant is the highest ranking NCO in a company-sized unit. Also known as a top kick (1918) and is often addressed informally as “top.”

Use of the term sergeant-major to denote the highest rank of NCO is relatively recent, dating only to 1802. The title has been around since the 16th century, but in previous ages referred to an officer’s rank.

In the US military, the top-most rank, sergeant major of the army and the other services’ equivalents, are held by one individual at any given time.

Military Units
Individual ranks and titles are not the only hierarchy in the military. There is an organizational hierarchy as well.

The smallest unit is a squad, from the French escouade (1649), in the infantry, a section in artillery, or a crew in armor. These range from four to eleven persons and are led by a staff sergeant.

Several squads make up a platoon. The word is from the French peloton, literally little ball (1637). A platoon consists of about 40 infantrymen, four tanks, or three or four artillery pieces. Platoons are led by lieutenants.

The general term for the next larger unit is company, although other terms are in use depending on the type of unit. In the artillery, this sized unit is called a battery (1555). In the cavalry it is a troop (1590) and in the air force it is known as a flight. These units are commanded by captains and have 100-150 soldiers.

Three to four companies constitute a battalion, from the French battaillon. The word dates to the 16th century, but the modern sense dates to 1708. In the cavalry (1702) or the air force (1912), this sized unit is called a squadron, from the Italian squadrone or square. The original 16th century military sense referred to a square of soldiers. Battalions and squadrons are commanded by lieutenant colonels and have between 500 and 1,000 soldiers, depending on the type of unit.

Naval squadrons (1588) consist of a number of ships and are commanded by a senior captain (commodore) or admiral. In modern navies, squadrons are generally composed of ships of like type and are primarily administrative and logistical organizations. At sea, ships are organized into task forces (1941) or battle groups, centered around one or more aircraft carriers or cruisers. Task forces are not permanent organizations, consisting of ships brought together for a specific mission.

Ground forces also organize into task forces. Battalions will typically trade companies before going into battle, one infantry company joining two armor companies to form an armored task force under the command of the armor battalion commander, or one armor company and two of infantry forming an infantry task force. When companies swap platoons they create combined arms company teams.

The Marine Corps equivalent of a task force is the Marine Expeditionary Unit. The MEU is built around a battalion, reinforced with an air squadron and other units. An MEU is commanded by a colonel.

Several, usually three, battalions form a brigade, ultimately from the Italian brigata, literally company or crew, after brigare, to brawl or fight. The current military sense dates to 1637. Brigades are commanded by colonels. The air force equivalent is called a wing (1915).

US cavalry brigades are called regiments, from the Latin regimentum, to rule. Military use of the term dates to 1579. Other than in the cavalry, US army regiments are historical designations only. The US Marine Corps has regiments as well, which form the nucleus of a Marine Expeditionary Brigade. An MEB is commanded by a general officer.

A division consists of three maneuver brigades (infantry or armor) and an artillery brigade, or divarty (div[ision] + art[iller]y). Divisions are commanded by major generals. The current military sense dates to the 19th century, although use to mean a military unit of some size is several centuries older.

A US Marine Corps division goes into combat as part of a Marine Expeditionary Force, which is the division reinforced with an air wing and logistical units. An MEF is commanded by a lieutenant general.

Several divisions form a corps, a clipping of the French corps d’armée. English use dates to the early 18th century. An army corps is commanded by a lieutenant general and is the largest combat unit. The commandant of the US Marine Corps is a general.

The RAF equivalent of a corps is a group (1922). The US Air Force does not have an equivalent unit.

The echelon above corps is an army, fleet, or air force, depending on the service. These are not combat units, existing as administrative and logistical organizations. In WWII, these larger units did operate on the battlefield and multiple armies were even organized into army groups.

Unit Types
Air Assault, adj., descriptive of infantry troops trained in helicopter operations, also airmobile, c.1965.

Airborne, adj., descriptive of infantry troops trained in parachute operations, 1937.

Armor, n., tanks and other fighting vehicles equipped with metallic protection. From the Old French armeüre, ultimately from the Latin armatura, c.1900 for the modern sense.

Artillery, n., cannon, rockets, and missiles. From the Old French artillerie, the modern sense of artillery as cannon dates to c. 1533.

Cavalry, n., mobile, lightly armed troops suitable for reconnaissance and screening operations. Originally mounted on horses, cavalry are now mounted on either helicopters (air cavalry) or armored vehicles (armored cavalry). From French, ultimately from the Latin caballarius, horseman, 1591.

Commando, n., generic term for a highly trained soldier who engages on raids and reconnaissance missions behind enemy lines, also special operations. The term is from the Portuguese word for war party, used to denote Portuguese and Boer paramilitary bands that conducted raids in southern Africa, initially against natives (1791) and later against the British (1899). The modern sense was first used by the British army in 1940.

Green Beret, n., a type of US special operations soldier specialized in training and leading foreign troops and conducting counter-insurgency operations. From the distinctive headgear they wear, 1955.

Infantry, n., a body of foot soldiers or foot soldiers generally. From the French infanterie, ultimately from the Latin infantem, youth, soldier, 1579. Mechanized infantry is mounted on armored vehicles, 1928.

Ranger, n., the name used to designate an American commando, 1941.

Weapons
Aegis, n., a weapon system carried aboard some cruisers and destroyers that provides defenses against enemy aircraft and missiles for a naval task force. From the Greek name for the shield carried by Athena, a word of uncertain etymology.

Aircraft Carrier, n., a warship specifically designed to launch and recover combat aircraft, 1919. US aircraft carriers are designated with the letters CV or CVN (nuclear powered); the USS Nimitz, for example, is CVN-68.

Battleship, n., a surface combatant of the heaviest class, a dreadnought. A clipping of line-of-battle ship, a ship powerful enough to sail in the line of battle, 1794. The first modern battleship was the HMS Dreadnought (hence the secondary name), launched in 1906. US battleships were designated with the letters BB; the USS New Jersey was BB-62. There are no battleships currently in commission in any navy.

Bomber, n., an aircraft that drops ordnance on targets on the ground, especially a plane specifically designed for that mission, 1917. US bombers are designated with a letter B (bomber) for heavy, long-range bombers and a letter A (attack) for lighter, short-ranged aircraft. Hence the B-52 Stratofortress and the A-10 Thunderbolt.

Capital Ship, n., the most important or powerful type of warship in a navy, traditionally a battleship, but since WWII the term has been applied to aircraft carriers and ballistic missile submarines as well. 1652.

Cruise Missile, n., a guided, pilotless jet aircraft carrying a warhead and able to fly at low altitudes, 1959. Cruise missiles can be designed for either anti-ship and land-attack missions.

Cruiser, n., a warship designed to cruise, as opposed to sailing in the line of battle, 1679. The verb to cruise originally meant to sail without a specific destination port in order to protect merchant ships, capture enemy ships, or conduct other missions, 1679. In modern use, cruisers provide air defenses for aircraft carriers and other ships as well as anti-ship and land-attack missile capability. US cruisers are designated with the letters CG (C for cruiser, G for Guided missile); the USS Ticonderoga is CG-47.

Cutter, n., a small, fast warship. The term dates to 1745 and is from the verb to cut, although the exact metaphor is uncertain. It may refer to cutting the water or simply to traveling swiftly. The term is now used by the US Coast Guard as a generic term for their warships that are longer than 65-feet in length.

Destroyer, n., a small, fast warship designed to escort other ships, providing air, submarine, and small-craft defenses. Originally, a clipping of torpedo-boat destroyer, from its task of protecting battleships from small torpedo boats, 1893. US destroyers are designated with the letters DD, or DDG for guided-missile destroyers; the USS Arleigh Burke is DDG-51.

Fighter, n., a high-speed aircraft for general purpose combat missions, especially one designed to shoot down enemy aircraft, 1917. US fighters are designated with a letter F, as in the F-15 Eagle. WWII-era fighters were designated with a P, for pursuit, as in P-51 Mustang.

Frigate, n., a small, fast warship designed for escort duties. The term is from the Italian fregata and is of unknown etymology, 1585. The term originally referred to the class of ships below the line of battle, a cruiser. Since 1943, the term has been used to refer to anti-submarine escort vessels. US frigates are designated with the letters FF, or FFG for guided-missile frigates; the USS Oliver Hazard Perry is FFG-7.

Gun, n., in military parlance, a gun is a cannon that delivers projectiles at high velocity and flat trajectory. From the Middle English gunne, c.1384, probably a hypocoristic form of the female name Gunnhildr.

Howitzer, n., a cannon that delivers projectiles at medium velocity and high trajectories. From the German Haubitze, catapult, c.1700.

Machinegun, n., a firearm that is mechanically loaded and fired and is capable of continuous fire, 1867.

Mortar, n., an indirect-fire weapon that fires projectiles at low velocity and very high trajectory. From the Old English mortere, the military sense dates to 1558.

Pistol, n., a firearm that is held and fired with one hand. From the French pistole, c.1570. An earlier form was pistolet.

Rifle, n., a handheld firearm with a spirally grooved bore to spin the projectile, thereby increasing accuracy. From the verb meaning to carve a groove in a weapon’s barrel, 1635, which is from the French rifler, to scratch or scrape. The word is used as a type of firearm from 1770 and as the name for a groove in a firearm’s barrel from c.1751.

Rocket, n., an engine propelled by burning fuel in a combustion chamber and releasing the exhaust through a nozzle, a bomb propelled by a rocket engine. From the Italian rocchetta or little distaff, after the shape, 1611. The word is ultimately of Germanic, not Latin, origin however.

Submarine, n., a boat designed to operate below the surface of the sea, From sub- + marine, 1899. Submarines come in two broad classes. Attack submarines hunt and destroy surface ships and other submarines. Missile submarines are undersea missile platforms; ballistic missile subs carry intercontinental nuclear missiles; guided missile subs carry shorter-ranged, conventionally armed missiles. US submarines are designated with the letters SS, plus N for nuclear-powered boats and B for ballistic missile subs or G for guided missile subs. All US submarines currently in service are nuclear powered. The USS Los Angeles is SSN-688; the USS Tennessee is SSBN-734; the USS Ohio is SSGN-726. Submarines are referred to as boats, unlike other large naval vessels which are ships.

Tank, n., an armored fighting vehicle with a tracked carriage and mounting a gun. From a code name used to disguise the shipment of the first tanks to the front, 1915.

Slang & Jargon
AAA, n., pronounced / triple a /, abbreviation of anti-aircraft artillery.

Airedale, n., navy, an aviator or air crew. From a pun on air and the breed of dog, 1942. Sometimes used in the other services.

Air Superiority, n., dominance in air power that allows air operations without prohibitive interference from the enemy and that prohibitively interferes with enemy air operations, 1935. Also used as an adjective to describe fighters and missions designed to shoot down enemy aircraft.

Air Supremacy, n., dominance in air power such that the enemy cannot effectively resist or mount its own air operations, 1916.

Angels, n., altitude, specifically a thousand feet of altitude. Originally RAF radio code, 1943.

Auger-in, v., to crash an aircraft, from the idea of boring into the earth, 1944.

Bandit, n., a hostile aircraft, 1942. Cf. bogey.

Bingo, interj. & n., air force, an empty fuel tank, the condition of being low on fuel, started as radio code for a pilot announcing he had to return to base, 1956.

Black/Brown-Shoe, n., navy. A black-shoe is a non-aviator, and a brown-shoe is an aviator or (since c. 1970) a submariner. From the practice of surface officers of wearing black shoes with khaki uniforms and aviators and submariners of wearing brown ones, c.1950.

Bogey, n., an unidentified aircraft, 1943. From the sense of bogey meaning phantom or ghost. Cf. bandit.

Boomer, n., a ballistic missile submarine, 1976.

Bounce, n. & v., an attack on an unsuspecting enemy aircraft, an aerial ambush, to make such an attack, 1943.

Brown water/blue water, adj., navy. These two adjectives distinguish types of fleets or operations. Blue water denotes fleets with global reach or operations on the high seas. Brown water denotes craft or operations in coastal regions and rivers.

BUF, n., nickname for a B-52 Stratofortress, acronym for Big Ugly (Fat) Fucker, 1968, also BUFF.

Bug out, v. & n., army, to retreat or flee from battle, to desert. Also, a retreat or rout, 1950.

Buster, v., naval aviation, to hurry, 1986.

Dogface, n., army, a soldier, especially a low-ranking one, a private, 1930. Originally an adjective, “dawg-faced soldier,” meaning ugly. Adjectival use is non-military in origin and dates to 1849.

Dogfight, n. & v., combat between aircraft, 1919. From an 1880 sense of the term to denote a general melee or fight.

Dogrobber, n., army, an orderly or aide de camp. Originally used to denote a soldier who pilfers food or scrounges other material, 1832. Used to denote an orderly or aide from 1863. Also a verb meaning to serve as an orderly or aide, 1878.

Frag, n. & v., a fragmentation bomb or grenade, 1943, to kill someone, especially a superior officer, with a fragmentation weapon, 1970. Also a clipping of fragmentary order, an amendment to a previously issued order, also frago, 1962.

Hangar queen, n., an aircraft that habitually breaks down or requires maintenance, 1943.

Hump, n. & v., a laborious march, to carry a heavy load on a march. Originally Australian slang, c. 1851. Came into US military use during the Vietnam War.

John Wayne, adj., something daring, reckless, or self-consciously heroic. Also used as a generic adjective for military items, e.g., John Wayne can opener, John Wayne hat, John Wayne candy bar. From the name of the film star, 1960. Also a verb meaning to attack recklessly.

Click, n., a kilometer, 1962. Also klick.

Leg, n., a soldier who is not qualified as a parachutist. Clipping of straight leg, a reference to airborne troops bending their legs at the knee when landing, 1964. Also used as an adjective for persons and things that are not airborne, e.g., leg infantry.

Milk run, n., an air combat mission that encounters little opposition and sustains no casualties, 1944. From an earlier use to mean a supply flight, 1943.

Nugget, n., naval aviation slang for a student pilot or junior officer, 1966.

Old Man, The, n., the commanding officer of a unit or ship, regardless of age, 1830.

Ringknocker, n., disparaging term for a graduate of West Point, from the supposed habit of said graduates to knock their class rings on a table to signal group solidarity to other West .

Grunt, n., an infantry soldier, 1962. Applied to marines since 1968. Probably from the sound made while performing manual labor, but possibly from an older telephone/power slang term for a lineman, 1926.

Gyrene, n., disparaging term for a marine. Of unknown origin; possibly a jocular adaptation on the Greek gyrinos, meaning tadpole, and a reference to the marine’s amphibious mission. Often thought to be a combination of G.I. + [ma]rine, but this is unlikely as it appears half a century before G.I.. First appears in 1894 in Naval Academy slang.

Shavetail, n., disparaging nickname for a second lieutenant. From the old US Army practice of shaving the tails of its mules, 1846. Applied as a nickname for junior officers by 1891.

Skipper, n., informal term of address for the captain of a ship. From the Middle Dutch or Middle Low German schipper, or sailor, from 1390.

Smart bomb, n., a munition guided to its target by optical, laser, radar, or other means, 1972. Also dumb bomb, an unguided munition. Officially known as Precision Guided Munitions, or PGMs.

Sortie, n., an operational flight of a single combat aircraft, 1918. Earlier use to mean an attack by a besieged garrison against the investing force. From the French meaning a going out.

Warthog, n., nickname for the A-10 Thunderbolt. From its ungainly appearance. Despite the nature of the name, it is bestowed with fondness and is not disparaging.

World, the, n., the United States. Used especially by soldiers stationed overseas and in phrases like back in the world.The United States and Britain are deploying large numbers of soldiers, sailors, and airmen to the Persian Gulf. The United States and its allies are gearing up for another war with Iraq, so the words of the month are Military, adj., pertaining to soldiers, from the Latin miles or soldier, 1585, and Navy, n., a fleet or force of warships, from the Latin navis or ship, c. 1330.