Word of the Month: Mount Everest

1 May 2003

Fifty years ago this month, on 29 May 1953, two men, New Zealander Edmund Hillary (b. 1919) and Sherpa Tenzing Norgay (1914–1986) became the first humans to ascend to the summit of Mount Everest, at 29,028 feet (8848 meters) the highest mountain on earth.

In honor of the fiftieth anniversary of this event, our Word of the Month is:

Mount Everest, prop.n., Himalayan peak on the border of Nepal and Tibet, the highest in the world. It is named for Sir George Everest (1790-1866), surveyor-general of India. Cf. Chomolungma, Sagarmatha.

Hillary and Tenzing were members of the 1953 British expedition up the south face of Everest, under the leadership of John Hunt. The expedition established their base camp on 12 April and then set out to cross the Khumbu Icefall, a glacier with huge crevasses and massive blocks of ice and rock. Crossing the icefall is one of the most difficult and treacherous aspects of an ascent of Everest. 

By 21 May, the expedition had reached the South Col, at 26,000 feet (7925 m) a point from which attempts on the summit could be launched. On 26 May, a summit party comprising Tom Bourdillon and Charles Evans left the South Col, but their progress was slow and they had to turn back after reaching the South Summit, at 28,700 feet only 300 feet below the top, due to lack of time.

Two days later, on 28 May, Hillary and Norgay began their summit attempt. They established a camp at 27,900 feet (8503 m) before starting their summit attempt at 6.30 a.m. Climbing steadily, they reached the South Summit at 9 a.m. Continuing on, the two climbers reached the highest point on earth at 11.30 a.m. Running low on oxygen, the two remained at the summit for only fifteen minutes before beginning their descent. The news of the successful climb did not reach Britain until 2 June, the eve of Queen Elizabeth II’s coronation.

Climbing The South Face of Everest

Base Camp, at the foot of the Khumbu Icefall at 17,700 feet.

Khumbu Icefall, a 2,200-foot ascent up the glacier to the Western Cwm.

Western Cwm, a broad, flat glacial valley that leads from the Khumbu Icefall to the Lhotse Face.

Lhotse Face, an ascending wall of ice that rises some 3,700 feet at 40-50o angles. Lhotse means south peak and is the name of the mountain immediately south of Everest, separated from Everest by the South Col.

Geneva Spur, a large outcropping of rock at the top of the Lhotse Face, 24,000 feet, named in 1952 by a Swiss expedition.

South Col, a saddle at 26,000 feet, named by the British expedition of 1921. Used by modern expeditions as the location of their high camp.

Southeast Ridge, begins at “The Balcony,” a platform at 27,700 feet, and rises up to the South Summit.

South Summit, a dome of ice and snow at 28,700 feet, the decision point to either continue to the summit or turn around and descend.

Cornish Traverse, a 400-foot exposed traverse along a narrow ridge, with drops of 10,000 and 8,000 feet to either side. The Cornish Traverse leads to the Hillary Step.

Hillary Step, the last obstacle before the summit, a 40-foot spur of snow and ice at 28,750 feet. Hillary and Norgay were the first to climb the step and named it for Hillary, the more experienced technical climber of the two.

Summit, the top of the world, 29,028 feet (8848 m).

Climbing the North Face
First accomplished by the 1960 Chinese expedition.

Base Camp, immediately below Rongbuk Glacier, at 17,000 feet.

Rongbuk Glacier, climbs up 6,000 feet to the North Col.

North Col, a low point on the North Ridge at 23,000 feet.

First Step, 110-foot rock wall at 27,890-28,000 feet.

Second Step, 160-foot high series of rock walls and ledges at 28,140-28,300 feet.

Third Step, 100-foot high rock wall immediately above the Second Step. Much of the third step can be skirted by a traverse.

Summit Pyramid, a steep snowfield rising at angles of 50-60o, ending some 60 feet below the Summit.

The Summit
The following are some mountaineering and Everest terms:

Abseil, v., to descend by sliding down a rope, to rappel, from the German abseilen, ab (down) + seil (rope), 1933.

Acute Mountain Sickness, n., also AMS, a medical syndrome caused by rapid ascension to high altitudes. Symptoms include headache, fatigue, breathlessness, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, and difficulty sleeping. AMS is relatively minor but can lead to more serious, sometimes fatal, conditions.

Adze, n., an axe with the blade set at right angles to the handle and curving inward, often one end of an ice axe head, from the Old English adesa, c.880.

Arête, n., a narrow ascending ridge running up a mountain, from the French meaning ridge, sharp edge, 1862.

Avalanche, n., a large mass of snow and ice that descends a mountain side, from the dialectical French meaning descent, 1771.

Barn door, v., to lose the foot and hand holds on one side of the body, causing the climber to swing like a door.

Base camp, n., the lowest and largest camp on an expedition, the primary logistical point for an exhibition.

Because it is there, quote, said by legendary climber George Leigh Mallory when asked why wanted to climb Everest. Mallory, 37, along with fellow climber Andrew Irvine, 22, were lost in an attempt to climb the north face of Everest in 1924. In 1975, a Chinese expedition found the body of an “English dead” on the north face, just below the first step. It was believed at the time to be Irvine’s. Mallory’s body was found in that vicinity in 1999; he had died in a fall. It is not known whether this was the same body that the Chinese had found 24 years earlier.

Belay, v., to fasten or secure with a rope, to prevent from falling by use of a rope, originally nautical jargon, 1549. In mountaineering use by 1910.

Bergschrund, n., crevasse(s) at the head of a mountain glacier, from the German berg (mountain) + schrund (crevice), 1843.

Black ice, n., a thin layer of transparent ice, 1829.

Brain bucket, n., helmet, originally US Air Force slang, 1955.

Buttress, n., a projection of rock from the side of a mountain, 1682.

Chimney, n. & v., a cleft in a vertical cliff, resembling a flue, which can be scaled, usually by pressing rigidly against the opposite sides, 1871; to climb a chimney, 1940.

Chomolungma, prop.n., Tibetan name for Mount Everest, meaning mother goddess of the earth.

Col, n., a depression between two slopes or peaks, a high mountain pass, from the French, ultimately from the Latin collum or neck, 1853.

Coomb, n., a deep hollow or valley, from the Old English cumb, also spelled cwm, from the Welsh.

Cornice, n., an overhanging accumulation of ice and snow at the edge of a ridge or cliff, from the French or Italian. Originally an architectural term from the 16th century, in mountaineering use from 1871.

Couloir, n., a steep gully running down a mountainside, from the French for colander, passage, 1855.

Crack, n., fissure in a rock wall, varying in width from nail- to body width.

Crag, n., a steep, rugged rock, from Gaelic although the exact origin is uncertain, cognates exist in all the Gaelic languages, c.1300.

Crampon, n., a metal spiked plate attached to boots to assist in climbing in snow and ice, from the French, 1789.

Crater, v., to fall and hit the ground from height.

Crevasse, n., a fissure or chasm in a glacier, from the French, 1823, cognate with crevice.

Crux, n., the most difficult point in a climb.

Fixed rope, n., a rope, or series of ropes, anchored to the mountain to assist climbers over steep, exposed terrain, usually installed by preceding climbing teams.

Free climbing, n., style of climbing using only hands, feet, and natural holds. Ropes are used only for protection from falls. Also free solo, free climbing with no ropes.

Glacier, n., a large, slow-moving mass of ice, from the French, 1744.

Glissade, v. & n., to slide down an icy or snow-covered slope, from the French, originally used to describe a dance step, applied to mountaineering in 1859.

HACE, abbrev., High Altitude Cerebral Edema, swelling of the brain resulting from rapid ascents at altitudes above 9,000 feet (2,700 m). Symptoms range from headache and confusion to coma and death.

HAPE, abbrev., High Altitude Pulmonary Edema, swelling of the lung tissue resulting from rapid ascents at altitudes above 9,000 feet (2,700 m), symptoms range from cough to coughing bloody sputum to coma and death.

Headwall, n., steep cliff face at the head of a valley, 1904.

Himalayas, prop.n., mountain range in central Asia containing the highest peaks on earth, from the Sanskrit hima (snow) + alaya (abode).

Hypoxia, n., a lack of oxygen, 1941, the chief danger to climbers of Everest.

Ice axe, n., tool for cutting steps or holds in ice and snow, 1820.

Icefall, n., a cataract of ice, a portion of a glacier resembling a waterfall, 1817.

Jumar, n. & v., a clip attached to a fixed rope that automatically tightens when weight is applied and relaxes when it is removed, facilitating the climbing of the rope, a climb using jumars, to climb with the aid of jumars, from a Swiss name, 1966.

K2, prop.n., the second highest mountain on earth, 28,251 feet (8,611 m), first climbed in 1954 by Achille Compagnoni and Lino Lacedelli. Although not as high as Everest, it is considered a much more challenging climb. Designated K2 by Col. T.G. Montgomery in 1856, the K is for the Karakorum range, K2 was the second peak in that range that he sighted. Also known as Chogori and Mount Godwin-Austen.

Karabiner, n., a metal oval or D-shaped ring with a gate that prevents accidental opening, clipping of the German karabiner-haken or spring hook. Often spelled carabiner in the U.S. Also biner.

Layback, n. & v., a method of climbing vertical cracks by gripping the edge with the hands, leaning back and placing the feet flat on the rock at the side of the crack and slightly below the hands. As the climber pulls on the edge of the crack and presses his feet against the rock, the opposing pressures exerted can be sufficient to support the body, 1925.

Moraine, n., a mound or ridge of rock and other debris carried and deposited by a glacier, moraines are usually found at a glacier’s edge, from the French, 1783.

Notch, n., a small col, 1718.

Piton, n., a metal spike with a hole, or eye, at one end for securing a rope, jammed into cracks or hammered into rocks climbers use them in ascent and descent, from the French for eye bolt, 1898.

Rappel, n., technique of descent by sliding down a rope, from the French rappeler or to recall, 1931, used as verb since 1957. Cf. abseil.

Sagarmatha, prop.n., Nepalese name for Mount Everest, meaning churning stick in the sea of existence.

Scrambling, n., easy climbing, usually unroped.

Sherpa, n., a Tibetan people living in the Himalayas, 1847, from the Tibetan shar (east) + pa (people), in transferred use meaning a mountain guide or porter.

Sirdar, n., the lead guide/porter on an expedition, from the Persian sar (head) + dar (possessor), used by the British in India to denote a valet or bearer since 1782.

Summit, n., the highest point a mountain or rock, from the Anglo-French sumette, 1481. Also a verb meaning to reach the summit of a mountain.

Traverse, v. & n., to move horizontally across the face of a mountain, a place where one traverses, 1983.

Yeti, n., mythical ape-man of the Himalayas, a.k.a., the abominable snow man, from the Tibetan for man-like animal, 1937.

War Words Part Deux

1 April 2003

Last month, we featured various military terms that were likely to be on the news. Of course, predictions are not perfect. There are host of jargon and slang terms that have cropped up in the reporting on the war in Iraq. Here are some that we missed last month. Not all of these are relevant to or used in the current conflict. Some are historical, evoked by recent events.

Airhead, n., fortified position behind enemy lines established by troops landed and reinforced by air, 1944. Cf. beachhead, bridgehead.

Appeasement, n., the action of pacifying or assuaging a belligerent or potential belligerent. The verb to appease has been in use since 1330. Modern political use dates to 1919 and is most often associated with the 1938 Munich conference where British Prime Minister Chamberlain made concessions to Hitler. Since 1938, the term has carried disparaging connotations. From the Old French apaisement, apeisement.

Asymmetric warfare, n., military jargon for unconventional attacks against a technologically superior military force. From 1997.

Beachhead, n., fortified position established by troops landed and reinforced by sea, 1940. Cf. airhead, bridgehead.

Blue on blue, adj., military jargon term for friendly fire, from the US military practice of depicting friendly forces with blue graphics on maps and enemy forces as red graphics.

Body bag, n., a zippered, rubber bag used for the transportation of corpses. 1954.

Body count, n., the number of enemy killed by friendly forces in a battle, esp. referring to the practice during the Vietnam war of judging success by the number of enemy killed. From 1965.

Brainwashing, n., the elimination of political unacceptable ideas from the mind of a prisoner or dissident. 1950.

Break china, v.phr., to cause collateral damage. 2003.

Bridgehead, n., a fortified position defending one end of a bridge, fortified position on the bank of a body of water that is established and reinforced by a landing force, 1812. Cf. airhead, beachhead.

Briefing, n., a formal presentation of information or instructions. In sporadic use since 1910, the term came into widespread use during WWII because of its use to denote pre-mission conferences among pilots. From the legal sense of brief, meaning a summary or abstract of an argument.

Bunker buster, n., a bomb specifically designed to destroy underground bunkers, 1991. Cf. blockbuster.

Catastrophic success, n., success so complete and swift that unintended, negative consequences result, e.g, “the dog who caught the car.” 1997.

Coalition, n., an impermanent alliance, from the Latin coalitionem. In English use since 1715.

Combat fatigue, n., psychological disturbance caused by prolonged exposure to combat. From 1943. Also battle fatigue. Cf. shell shock, post-traumatic stress disorder.

Contact point, n., location where two or more units are required to make contact. A hot contact point is where a unit meets an enemy unit.

Dead-ender, n., one who has no choice but to fight to the death, coined by Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld in 2001 in reference to Taliban loyalists. Cf. bitter-ender. In use from 1993 to mean one who is not accomplishing anything in life, e.g., a drug addict.

Dear John, n., a letter or other correspondence from a woman that ends a romantic relationship, esp. such a letter sent to a soldier overseas. From the traditional opening of such a letter. In use since 1942. Dear Jane often denotes such a letter to a woman.

Decapitation, n., a military attack designed to destroy the political leadership of a country at the start of a war. From Cold War nuclear targeting jargon.

Deconflict, v., to coordinate to ensure friendly units do not interfere with one another, esp. to deconflict airspace or deconflict fires.

Demilitarized zone, n., a region between belligerent parties in which it is mutually agreed that no military forces may be deployed. From 1934. Also, DMZ.

Embedded, adj., referring to a journalist assigned to a particular military unit. 1995.

Failsafe, adj., referring to a system, esp. a system involving nuclear weapons, that will revert to a condition of no danger in case of failure. From 1948. First used in reference to aircraft design. Applied to nuclear weapons by 1958.

Fix, v., to hold an enemy in place with fire and maneuver until more powerful forces can be brought to bear to destroy them. 1991. Intransitive use meaning to take a defensive position dates to the 17th century.

Fog of war, n., uncertainty and confusion that is inherently part of battle. Often mistakenly attributed to Clausewitz, who instead uses friction to denote the concept.

Force multiplier, n., military jargon for a factor that increases combat effectiveness without additional troops, such as intelligence or night-vision equipment.

Friendly fire, n., ordnance accidentally directed at one’s own troops. The adjective friendly to describe one’s own forces and fires dates to WWI. The specific phrase friendly fire dates to 1976. Also known as fratricide, a term used in this sense since the early 1980s.

Go kinetic, v., to open fire on the enemy.

Granularity, n., a quality of information that makes it sufficiently detailed to be useful for the intended purpose.

Hearts and minds, n., political support for a war and a regime, phrase coined during the Vietnam War to denote a policy attempting to cultivate support for the Saigon regime among the South Vietnamese people. Since then, the term has often been used with a connotation of a failed policy.

Hotline, n., a dedicated communications link that is always connected, or “hot,” especially the link established between Washington and Moscow in 1963. The term is military jargon from 1955.

Human shield, n., a civilian used to deter an attack on a military target. From at least 1990.

Jarhead, n., a disparaging term for a US marine, this sense dates to WWII. From an older sense of the term meaning a stupid or foolish person or a mule, similar to jughead, 1918.

Kinetic targeting, n., the dropping of bombs, as opposed to soft targeting or the dropping of leaflets or humanitarian supplies.

Liberate, v., to free an occupied territory via military force. From WWII.

Light at the end of the tunnel, c.phr., a favorable ending to a long ordeal, often associated with false hopes for success in the Vietnam war, but the imagery has been in use since the 19th century.

Mother of all ____, c.phr., indicating biggest or otherwise superlative example of a thing, usually facetiously, after Saddam Hussein’s description of the upcoming ground battle in the first Gulf War as the “mother of all battles.”

Mousehole, n. & v., a hole knocked in the walls of a building to enable soldiers to move from room to room or into connecting buildings without exposing themselves to observation. To create or move through such a passage. c.1950.

No man’s land, n., the territory between two entrenched armies. From 1908, but commonly associated with WWI. From an earlier sense of the phrase meaning unowned or waste land.

Post-traumatic stress disorder, n., psychological disturbance caused by exposure to stressful situations, such as combat, 1973. Cf. shell shock, combat fatigue.

Preemptive, adj., referring to military action initiated to counter an imminent enemy attack. From 1959.

Preventive, adj., referring to military action initiated to keep a future threat from coming to fruition. From 1955.

Red line, n., a figurative trip wire, the crossing of which will trigger some response, 1989.

Regime change, n., US policy of using political and military resources to topple Saddam Hussein’s government of Iraq. From 1998.

Regime target, n., infrastructure used by the highest levels of the Iraqi regime, including presidential palaces, security service and intelligence headquarters, command bunkers.

Rules of engagement, n., directives delineating the circumstances and limitations under which military forces will initiate or continue combat against an opposing force.

SALT, abbrev., acronym for Strategic Arms Limitation Talks/Treaty, a series of arms control negotiations between the US and Soviet Union. From 1968.

Sensitive site exploitation, n., process of examining locations suspected of containing weapons of mass destruction, also SSE.

Shell shock, n., psychological disturbance caused by prolonged exposure to combat, 1915. Cf. combat fatigue, post-traumatic stress disorder.

Shock and awe, n., sudden, synchronous, and overwhelming application of military force against an adversary to paralyze its will to carry on. Coined by Harlan K. Ullman and James P. Wade in a 1996 book of that title.

START, abbrev., acronym for Strategic Arms Reduction Talks/Treaty, a series of arms control negotiations between the US and Soviet Union. From 1981.

Strike package, n., the aircraft and ordnance involved in a bombing raid, includes fighters, tankers, reconnaissance and early warning radar aircraft. 1991.

Terror bombing, n., intensive and indiscriminate bombing intended to frighten a country into capitulation. From 1941.

Unilateral, adj., referring to a war correspondent who is covering the conflict without official sanction by one of the belligerent parties. From 1990.

Vertical envelopment, n., a military maneuver where troops are air-dropped or air-landed to the rear or flanks of the enemy.

American Dialect: The Northern Cities Shift and the Great Lakes Region

1 April 2003

The dialect of the inland north, or the Great Lakes region, has the distinction of being “normal” American speech. As such, it is often difficult to categorize and people from the region are often not recognized as having a distinct dialect at all. Of course they do have one; all people speak with a distinct dialect. It is just that in this case there is not much to distinguish it from what is considered “standard” American speech. But there is one very distinctive feature of the accent of the region. It is one of the more distinctive pronunciation patterns in American speech. It is known as the:

The Northern Cities Shift
The shift is evident is a swath of territory stretching from the Hudson River valley in New York, across northern Ohio and Indiana, to Chicago and Detroit, encompassing the rust-belt cities of the northern Midwest. The shift is a distinctive pronunciation of short vowel sounds that was first identified by linguist William Labov and colleagues from the University of Pennsylvania in 1973. Now, not everyone in the region displays the shift; many opt for “normal” American pronunciation. Some people only display the shift with specific vowels, opting for the standard pronunciation for the others. But if one spends any significant time in the region, one can begin to identify the shift.

In the Northern Cities Shift, the short a sound is raised and fronted so that it becomes a short i, and then becomes a diphthong, dropping and backing to its standard sound. Bad is pronounced /biy-ud/ and cat is pronounced /kiy-ut/. The name Ann is indistinguishable from Ian. This shift in the short a occurs in Philadelphia speech as well, but only before specific consonant sounds. In the Northern Cities it is universal.

The short o takes the place vacated by the short a. Cot is pronounced /cat/ and pop is /pap/.

Since the short i was bumped out of its position by the short a, it has to go somewhere. It takes the place of the short u. Bit becomes /but/ and kid becomes /kud/. The short u, in turn, takes the /ou/ sound, buses becomes /bosses/.

Residents of Illinois also shift the short e sound before the consonant l. So they pronounce their state as /ell-annoy/ and the drink /melk/ instead of /milk/. This particular vowel shift is found elsewhere in the United States, but it is most prominent in Illinois.

Vocabulary
While the accent of the Midwest is difficult to distinguish from standard American English, like any region it has a distinctive vocabulary. The following is a selection of terms used in the region.

Baga, n., clipping of rutabaga, (Mich., Wis., & Minn.).

Bank barn, n., a barn built into the side of a hill, allowing access on two levels (Penn., Ohio, Ind., Md., Va.). Also basement barn.

Belling, n., a noisy celebration for newlyweds, a shivaree (primarily Ind., but also western Penn., W.Va., Ohio, & Mich.).

Berm, n., the shoulder of a road (Penn., W.Va., Ohio, & Ind.).

Booya, n., a meat and vegetable stew (Mich., Wis., & Minn.).

Brush cut, n., a crew cut hairstyle (N.Y. & Mich.).

Buckeye, n., nickname for a resident of Ohio, the “Buckeye State.” The name is from the American horse chestnut (Æsculus glabra), called a buckeye because it is said to resemble a stag’s eye. In the 1820s, settlers throughout the Ohio River valley began referring to themselves as buckeyes. Eventually, use of the name became restricted to the state of Ohio.

Canadian soldier, n., a mayfly, so called from the belief that they invade in swarms from the north (Ohio).

Carry-in, n., a potluck meal (Ill., Ind., & Ohio).

Cathole, n., a deep place in a river (Mich.).

Cincinnati chili, n., a style of chili invented in the 1920s by Athanas Kiradjieff, founder of the Empress Chili parlor in Cincinnati. More watery than most chilis, it is traditionally served as a sauce for spaghetti. Three-way chili adds a cheese topping to the chili. Four-way adds onions to the mix. And five-way adds kidney beans.

Clout, n. & v., political influence or power, to exercise such power. Originally Chicago (1937), now widespread. From the sense meaning a heavy blow.

Clove, n., a mountain pass or gap, from the Dutch kloof, klove (N.Y. Hudson River valley).

Cork ball, n., a bat and ball game, a variant of baseball with at least four players per team and a small ball of cork (southern Ill.)

Devil’s night, n., mischief night, 30 October, a night where children and teens play pranks. In the 1980s in Detroit, Devil’s Night acquired a very malicious tinge when it became characterized by a large number of arsons (Mich.).

Devil’s strip, n., verge of grass and trees between the sidewalk and the road (Ohio).

Doodle, n., a small pile or bundle of hay, grain, or something else (Ind., Ohio, western Penn.).

Dope, n., syrup poured on ice cream (Ohio).

Egypt, prop. n., an area of southern Illinois between the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. From allusion to Cairo, Ill. and the alluvial land nearby, evoking the Nile region.

Fish tug, n., a fishing boat (Mich.).

Goetta, n., /get-ta/, a dish similar to scrapple, oatmeal and ground meat molded into a loaf, then sliced and fried (Cincinnati, Ohio).

Gulf, n., a gulch (N.Y.).

Hard road, n., a paved road (Ill.).

Haw horse, n., the left-most horse in a team (Ind., Ill., Ohio).

Hawk, n., a cold, winter wind (Chicago, esp. African-American).

Hilliken, n., a rural or rustic person, a hillbilly (Ohio).

Hoodlebug, n., a small railroad (Ohio).

Hoosier, n., nickname for a resident of Indiana, also a rural or rustic person. The origin is unknown. The term dates to 1826. Various theories on its origin exist. One is that it is from an English dialectical word meaning high hills, but only one citation of this word’s existence has been found in England and none in America. Another is that is from an early settler with that name. Others say it is from the greeting “who’s ‘ere.”

Hutspot, n., dish of potatoes and other vegetables, and sometimes meat, cooked in a meat sauce (Mich.).

Juneberry, n., a serviceberry (Mich., Minn., Wis., and Penn.)

Kill, n., a river or natural waterway, from the Dutch kil (N.Y.).

Lawyer, n., a burbot, an eel-like, fresh-water fish. One 19th century wag said the name is because, “he ain’t of much use, and is the slipriest [sic] fish that swims” (Mich., Minn., Wis.). Also lake lawyer.

Lunch roll, n., a type of jelly doughnut (Mich.).

Michigan basement, n., a partial or unfinished basement, often with a dirt floor. Often added to an existing house as a furnace room.

Pitch-in dinner, n., a potluck meal (Ind.).

Book Review: Oxford Dictionary of Word Histories

1 April 2003

It seems lately that we have been reviewing books that are not in and of themselves bad or especially flawed, but whose utility is limited. The market for books on words and language is a crowded one, yet publishers seem intent on pumping out books that do not fit a particular niche or offer anything new or different.

This month we review yet another. The Oxford Dictionary of Word Histories, edited by Glynnis Chantrell, is a book that has no obvious flaws. The scholarship is uniformly excellent, relying on the extensive lexicographic files of Oxford Press. There are over 12,000 entries, which give the book considerable scope. Yet, in reading it one continually wonders if anyone would actually ever find this book useful.

The chief problem is the words selected. The 12,000 entries all cover common words in the standard vocabulary. There are no phrases, no slang, no jargon, and no profanity. In short, the book omits most of the words that people are curious about. The alphabetical arrangement is not conducive to conveying information on etymological or linguistic patterns. There are some attempts to describe derivation in sections called “Wordbuilding,” but these are simply lists of prefixes and suffixes under a different name and format.

The entries are fairly compact, typically running from six to eight lines. They are in plain English with few abbreviations or other etymological jargon. While this makes the information very accessible to the average reader, it also means is that each entry contains little more than one will find in the etymological notes of a good collegiate dictionary. Compare this to the approach taken by Merriam Webster in their 1991 New Book of Word Histories. Merriam Webster chose to have fewer entries (1,500), but the entries are longer, often half a page or more, and go into extensive detail.

This is really a bit of a shame. Oxford Press has gloriously rich files on word histories. Usually this information only makes it into publication in clipped and condensed form. A book that really delved into the history of words would be a joy. It would be the first time much of this research ever saw the light of day and it would provide insight into how the Oxford lexicographers make their etymological calls. Instead we get part of a collegiate dictionary.

Our recommendation would be to skip this one. It is not interesting enough to read, and if you are looking for etymological information on a particular word look in a good collegiate dictionary. And if you do not have one, your money would be much better spent getting one than on this book.

Hardcover, 420 pages, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0198631219, October 2002, $25.00.

Word of the Month: Space

1 April 2003

On 1 February, the space shuttle Columbia and her crew of seven were lost during their return to earth. In the weeks since, news reports have treated the public with detailed insights into NASA and the US space program and exposed millions to jargon terms used by astronauts and aeronautical engineers. So to honor the seven who lost their lives in the exploration of the heavens, our word of the month is:

Space, n., the expanse of the universe beyond the earth’s atmosphere. This sense was first used in 1667 by Milton in Paradise Lost. From the Old French espace.

The following is a sampling of technical jargon and NASA slang terms that have either been used in the news reports on the shuttle tragedy or have been the subject of inquiry by readers of the web site.

Ablation, n., the removal of material in small increments. In aeronautical use since 1951 to mean the removal of surface material via heat as an object enters the atmosphere. Also a verb, to ablate, and an adjective, ablative.

A-OK, adj., a variant of OK, 1961. The exact origin is uncertain. Some claim it means all-OK. Others contend that it was coined by Col. John A. “Shorty” Powers, a public information officer and the “Voice of Mercury Control” because A-OK was more likely to be understood through radio static than a simple OK.

Apollo, prop. n., designation for the third type of US manned spacecraft, flown 1968-75. Project Apollo was the program to put a man on the moon. After that project ended in 1972, the spacecraft was used in the Skylab missions, the first space station, and in the Apollo-Soyuz project, the first joint US-Russian space flight. After the Greek god.

Astronaut, n., a person who travels in space, from the Greek astro- (star) + naut (sailor), 1929, after aeronaut. Also cosmonaut, which is used especially for a Russian astronaut, from the Greek or Russian cosmos, universe.

Atlantis, prop. n., name of the fourth space shuttle orbiter, OV-104. Named for the famed research vessel used by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute from 1930-66.

Boost, n. & v., power that lifts an air- or spacecraft, in aeronautical use since 1931. Deboost, n & v., the slowing of a spacecraft via a retrorocket or deceleration maneuver, 1966. Also booster, n., an auxiliary engine or rocket that gives a rocket initial speed, 1944.

Burn, v. & n., to fire a rocket engine, the firing of a rocket engine, 1964.

Canaveral, Cape, prop. n., site of the Kennedy Space Center on the Atlantic coast of Florida. Launch site for all US manned space flights and US satellites in equatorial orbit. From the Spanish for canebrake or thicket of reeds. Called Cape Kennedy from 1963-73, before reverting to its traditional name.

Challenger, prop. n., name of the second space shuttle orbiter, OV-99. Challenger was destroyed on launch of the 51st shuttle mission on 28 January 1986 with the loss of all seven astronauts on board.

Columbia, prop. n., name of the first space shuttle orbiter, OV-102. Named for Christopher Columbus. Columbia was destroyed on re-entry on 1 February 2003 with the loss of all seven astronauts on board.

De-spin, v., to stop a satellite from spinning, 1960.

Discovery, prop. n., name of the third space shuttle orbiter, OV-103. Named for one of Captain James Cook’s ships.

Dock, v., to join one spacecraft with another, 1951. From the older sense of to bring a ship alongside a dock, 1600.

Endeavour, prop. n., name of the fifth space shuttle orbiter, replacement for Challenger, OV-105. Named for the first ship commanded by Captain James Cook, hence the British spelling of the name.

ESA, abbrev., European Space Agency.

Gemini, prop. n., designation for the second type of US manned spacecraft, flown 1965-66. From the Latin for twins, after the fact that Gemini was a two-man spacecraft.

Glitch, n. & v., a malfunction, 1962, from electronics jargon for an electrical surge. Ultimately from the German glitschen, to slip, probably via Yiddish.

Hubble, prop. n., an orbiting telescope, named for astronomer Edwin Hubble (1889-1953). Launched in 1990.

Intermodal, adj., relating to the transport of cargo that uses multiple modes of transport during the journey, NASA jargon from 1963.

Launch, v., n., & adj., relating to the lift-off of a rocket, 1952, from the sense of launching a sailing vessel.

Mach, n., a measurement of speed corresponding to the speed of sound, Mach 2 being twice the speed of sound, Mach 3 three-times the speed of sound, etc. Named for Austrian physicist Ernst Mach (1838-1916).

Man-rate, v., to certify a vehicle as safe for manned flight, 1963. Also, an adjective, man-rated.

Mercury, prop. n., designation for the first type of US manned spacecraft, flown 1961-63. After the Roman messenger god.

Microgravity, n., a condition where gravitational influences are very weak, specifically gravitational forces on board a spacecraft in orbit. (True zero-gravity is impracticable, imperfections in the orbit and gravitational pull from the sun, other planets and objects, and the spacecraft itself still exists). In use from 1975.

Mir, prop. n., a Russian space station that was in orbit 1986-99. Mir is the Russian word for peace.

Mission, n., an operational flight of an air- or spacecraft, 1929, ultimately from the Latin missionem, the act of sending something.

MIT, abbrev., Mishap Investigation Team, NASA and US military jargon for a group of engineers that investigate the causes of an aircraft or spacecraft accident. From 1990.

NACA, abbrev., National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics. Predecessor US government agency to NASA, 1922.

NASA, abbrev., National Aeronautics and Space Agency, US government agency charged with managing the civilian space program. 1958.

Nominal, adj., average, normal, within acceptable limits, 1966 for this sense. This sense of the word is unique to aviation and space jargon. The general sense refers to things having to do with names. There is a sense meaning in name only, that differences are insignificant. This sense is conflated with normal in space jargon. Off-nominal means outside acceptable limits.

Off-Scale Low (or High), adj., in reference to an instrument reading that goes outside measurable limits. Low or high refers to the vector when the instrument stopped functioning.

Orbit, n. & v., the path or course of a satellite around an object, 1696. To fly in a circle, 1946. To fly as a satellite, 1951. From the Latin orbis, wheel or circle. De-orbit, v., to leave an orbit and descend, 1962. Also used as a noun and as an adjective, especially in the phrase de-orbit burn.

Orbiter, n., a spacecraft or part of a spacecraft that flies in an orbit, 1958. Specifically, the space shuttle minus the external fuel tank and solid rocket boosters.

Payload, n., the part of an aircraft’s load from which revenue is derived or mission objectives accomplished, pay + load, 1930.

Plasma, n., a gas consisting of positive ions and free negative electrons in roughly equal numbers, usually achieved by high heat, burning gases, 1928. From the Latin plasma, a thing molded or shaped.

Progress, prop. n., an unmanned Russian cargo spacecraft used to carry supplies and material into orbit, based on the Soyuz design, 1978. Calque of the Russian name.

Pushing the envelope, v.phr., to exceed design limits. From mathematical and engineering jargon where an envelope is the locus of intersections in a series of curves.

Re-entry, n., the return of a spacecraft into the earth’s atmosphere, 1948.

Retro, n., a rocket that slows the forward momentum of a spacecraft, causing it to fall into a lower orbit or re-enter the atmosphere, 1961. A clipping of retro-rocket, 1957. From the Latin retro, backwards.

Satellite, n., an object that revolves around another, larger one. From the Latin satellitem, attendant or guard. This sense coined by astronomer Johannes Kepler in 1611. English use is from 1665.

Screw the pooch, c.phr., to commit catastrophic error, to fail, 1962. Euphemistic formulation of fuck the dog. From WWI army slang originally meaning to loaf, to idle, to fool around. Associated especially with aviation jargon because of its use in Tom Wolfe’s 1979 book, The Right Stuff.

Shuttle, n., a reusable spacecraft, more fully space shuttle. From 1960 in science fiction; in NASA usage since 1969. From WWII aviation usage denoting aircraft that made repeated flights between two points. Ultimately from the device used in weaving that passes the thread of the weft to and fro between the threads of the warp, 1338 from the Old English scytel.

Soft landing, n., a landing of a spacecraft where no damage is sustained, 1958.

Soyuz, prop. n., name of a Russian manned spacecraft, 1960. First flight was in 1966. Soyuz is Russian for union.

STS, abbrev., Space Transportation System, NASA term for the space shuttle, 1972. Shuttle missions are designated STS-#. The final flight of Columbia was STS-107, the 107th space shuttle mission.

Vandenberg, prop. n., US Air Force base on the California coast. Launch site for US satellites in polar orbits. Named after General Hoyt S. Vandenberg, Air Force Chief of Staff, 1958.

Zero-G, n. and adj., a clipping of zero gravity, a condition where there is no significant gravitational forces on a body. Zero-gravity was coined by Arthur C. Clarke in 1951; he coined zero-g in 1952.