2004 Words of the Year

1 January 2005

It seems as if every language publication, web site, and organization comes out with its list of words of the year around this time of year. So, why should we be any different? What follows is a selection of words and phrases that came to the fore in this past year. The selection criterion was simply that the term be important in the past year. These are not necessarily terms that were coined in 2004, and in fact, only one term on the list was actually coined this past year. They are listed in alphabetical order and we have made no attempt to rank which of them is the most emblematic of the year.

The list is dominated by one theme, the war in Iraq. This was the most significant event of the year and many of the words and phrases that kept popping up in the media dealt with this issue. Given this, the list appears a bit grim, but so were the events of the year. Running a distant second is the US presidential election. After that, there are a smattering of terms dealing with other issues, a few more light-hearted, others not so much.

So without further ado, here are the Wordorigins.org 2004 Words of the Year:

avian flu, n., Type A influenza, a type of influenza virus that is passed from birds to humans, also bird flu, cf. swine flu; avian, adj., pertaining to birds, from the Latin avis meaning bird, 1870; flu, n., clipping of influenza, 1839; influenza, n., an acute respiratory disease caused by a type of myxovirus, from the Italian word meaning influence, 1743. In Italian the word had an additional meaning, dating to the early 16th century, of an outbreak or epidemic of a disease, from the belief that the stars had influence over human diseases. In popular usage, the word influenza is often applied to any number of respiratory disorders. Fear of an avian flu outbreak persisted throughout 2004 and late in the year, shortages of flu vaccines in the US were a cause for concern among many.

battleground state, n., in a US presidential contest, a state that both candidates have a reasonable chance to win, a state that is in play. “Just for the record, Missouri is also a ‘battleground state’ so we’re seeing a lot of Clinton ads—as well as a lot of Clinton (Bill and Hillary) and Gore.” (bit.listserv.politics, 11 Oct 1992). While not a new term, the 2004 US presidential election concentrated on just a handful of battleground states, the others firmly in one camp or the other. Also swing state.

blog, n. & v., an internet web site consisting of regular (often daily) updates of news, gossip, commentary, and links to other web sites, to maintain such a web site, short for web log, from 1999. “For those keeping score on blog commentary from outside the blog community.” 28 May 1999, peterme.com (in OED3). Blog has given rise to many variant forms, most notably blogger (1999), blogging (1999) and blogosphere (2002), the totality of all blogs, the culture and world of blogging. While not a new term in 2004, this year saw the term and phenomenon recognized by mainstream media and culture.

Curse, The, prop.n., the supernatural force said to be keeping the Boston Red Sox from winning the World Series, esp. for losing the seventh and deciding game of the series, which they did in 1946, 1967, 1975, and 1986. The curse allegedly dates to 1920 when owner Harry Frazee traded Babe Ruth to the Yankees. Until 2004, the Red Sox had not won the Series since 1918. Also called The Curse of the Bambino. The use of curse to describe the Red Sox’s fate dates to at least 1986.

enemy combatant, n., an individual who takes up arms against a nation during war, originally used as a neutral or inclusive term to avoid categorizing someone as a soldier, insurgent, terrorist, etc. Since 2001, it has been used to blur or avoid making the distinction between a lawful combatant, who has certain rights under the laws of war, and an unlawful combatant, who does not.

exit poll, n., an unofficial survey of voters as they leave the polling place, used to predict the results of the election, 1980. In the 2004 US presidential race, exit polls falsely predicted Kerry would win by a large margin.

flip flop, n. & v., a reversal of a political position, to reverse positions on a political issue. The term has been in US political slang since at least 1971. The use of flop in this sense dates to 1880. John Kerry was repeatedly accused of being a flip-flopper by Republicans in 2004.

gay marriage, n., a legally sanctioned homosexual union, from at least 1984. In earlier use to refer to long-lasting cohabitation by members of the same sex. Gay marriage was a major US political issue in 2004, with Massachusetts becoming the first state to legalize them and local officials in many other states performing gay marriage ceremonies (later all declared legally invalid).

Green Zone, prop.n., the area of Baghdad housing the US civilian and military authorities of Iraq. A relatively, but not completely, safe area in that city, 2003. The year 2004 saw US officials increasingly restricted to the Green Zone for safety and sporadic attacks within the Green Zone itself.

humanitarian catastrophe, n., a disaster where political forces prevent the adequate distribution of food, water, or medical supplies and results in many more deaths than should have happened, since at least 1992. In 2004, the situation in the Darfur region of Sudan had become a humanitarian catastrophe.

hurricane, n., a tropical cyclone with sustained winds of 73 mph (65 knots, 12 on the Beaufort Scale) or greater. 2004 saw four major hurricanes make landfall in the state of Florida, causing extensive destruction.

insurgent, n., one who revolts against the constituted authority of a state, 1765, after the Latin insurgere, to rise up. 2004 saw isolated attacks against US and Iraqi authorities in Iraq develop into a full blown insurgency.

intelligence, n., knowledge of events or situations, esp. those of political or military import, the obtaining of such information, the agencies and their staffs engaged in collecting and analyzing such information, c.1450, from the French, ultimately from the Latin intelligentia, meaning understanding. The latter half of 2004 saw much political debate on how to reform and restructure US intelligence in the wake of 9/11 and the discovery of no weapons of mass destruction in Iraq—the putative cause for the war in that country.

martyr, n., a person who dies or greatly suffers in a cause for which they believe deeply, esp. a religious cause, to die or cause the death of such a person. Usage dates to the Old English period, from the Latin and ultimately the Greek word for witness. In 2004, martyr was the word most often selected to translate the Arabic word shahid, which is used to denote suicide bombers, but which also has the senses normally associated with the English word.

political capital, n., the power to influence policy and decisions derived from popular support, this US political term dates to 1842. The end of 2004 saw George W. Bush preparing to expend the political capital he garnered from his election victory on behalf of the issues and policies he wants passed by Congress in the coming year.

quagmire, n., a situation from which is difficult to extract oneself, 1775, from the literal sense of a bog or swamp, quag + mire. Quag, meaning a bog or marshy place, has cognates in Dutch and Low German, and appears in the 16th century. It is related to quake, to shake, which can be traced back to the Old English cwacian, but which does not have cognates in the other Germanic languages. Mire, which also means a swamp or bog, is from the Scandinavian myr and appears in the 13th century. The term quagmire was used in the Vietnam era to refer to that war and was again applied in 2004 to the situation in Iraq, evoking not only a swamp but that earlier conflict as well.

roadside bomb, n., an explosive device placed alongside a road in order to destroy or damage vehicles and their occupants as they pass, 1979. Roadside bombs became a standard weapon of the insurgents in Iraq in 2004.

sovereignty, n., of a nation, the quality of self-rule, free of the dominion of others, the exercise of supreme political power over a territory, c.1340, after the Norman-French sovereyneté. The passing of political power from the US occupation to the Iraqi provisional government in 2004 was an important step in returning that country’s sovereignty.

steroid, n., a class of organic compounds containing a 17-carbon, 4-ring system that, among other effects, builds muscle mass and affects sexual characteristics in humans, used by athletes to increase strength, 1936. 2004 saw professional baseball rocked with scandal with the revelation that NY Yankee Jason Giambi and San Francisco Giant Barry Bonds had taken steroids.

stop loss, adj., US military term for an order or policy that prevents servicemen and women from leaving the armed forces due to expiration of enlistments, retirement, etc. Since at least 1991. By 2004, morale in the US armed forces was strained due to the continuation of the stop-loss policy that kept soldiers in uniform past their original discharge dates.

swift boat, n., a fast, shallow-draft naval vessel used for patrolling coasts and rivers, esp. those boats that patrolled the Mekong River during the Vietnam War, mid-to-late 1960s. The Vietnam-era naval term came back into vogue in 2004 due to John Kerry’s service on a swift boat during that war.

tsunami, n., a series of large waves caused by an earthquake or other underwater geological disturbance, from the Japanese, tsu (harbor) + nami (waves), in English use since 1897. Often also popularly called a tidal wave (1878), but this latter term is technically imprecise as it can also refer to the large, but regular, tidal surge that occurs in some harbors and shorelines (1830). In December 2004 a tsunami, caused by a large (Richter 9.0) earthquake off the coast of Sumatra, devastated nations around the Eastern rim of the Indian Ocean. The death toll as of this writing is 127,000 and climbing.

vet, v., to investigate the suitability of a person nominated for a position of trust and confidence, 1904, from a late-19th century sense of having racehorses examined by a veterinarian. At the end of 2004, Bernard Kerik, the nominee for the post of Secretary of Homeland Security withdrew his name from consideration after a string of embarrassing revelations about his past. The White House had not adequately vetted him.

wardrobe malfunction, n., an accidental or pseudo-accidental exposure of the female breast, 2004. “I am sorry that anyone was offended by the wardrobe malfunction during the halftime performance of the Super Bowl. It was not intentional and is regrettable,” Justin Timberlake, 1 Feb 2004, after exposing singer Janet Jackson’s breast during the Superbowl half-time show.

Language Death, Part 2

1 December 2004

The issue of language death is a hot topic among linguists. Language death is the disappearance of dialects from the globe, the reduction in the number of dialects that are spoken worldwide. Most linguists agree that we are in the midst of an era where languages are disappearing at an extremely rapid rate and that this will result in various dire consequences for humanity and culture.

Last month, we examined the question of language death and how large a problem it is. This month, we’ll take a look at what the consequences of language death are and what can be done to address the problem.

Is it really a problem?
Isn’t the multiplicity of languages a barrier to communications? Wouldn’t a reduction in the number of languages improve the human condition and be a catalyst for peace? It is a common belief that a single language, or at least fewer languages, would make it easier for peoples to communicate, improve trade and economic conditions, and make war less likely.

Let’s take the last claim first. Are people who speak a common language less likely to make war with one another? Some of the bloodiest conflicts in recent years have been civil wars in countries where people speak the same language. Northern Ireland, Rwanda, Burundi, Cambodia, Vietnam, Korea, and China-Taiwan are all examples of conflicts or potential flashpoints between peoples who speak the same language. As a matter of fact, linguistic uniformity is more likely the result of war and violence than a vaccine for it. The dominant languages of the world, English, Russian, French, Spanish, Arabic, and Chinese are dominant because at some point in history those peoples engaged in extended periods of imperialism, bringing their language to others at the point of a sword or the barrel of a gun.

But there is truth to the belief that a common language can be beneficial in many ways, particularly economically. A common language facilitates trade and one of the driving forces behind language death is urbanization and other migrations of people seeking economic opportunity. They abandon the dialects of their home in favor of a tongue that opens doors to prosperity. This belief however assumes that one must choose between languages, it is either one or another. This is simply not the case, as is evidenced by the fact that most people in this world speak two or more languages. Spanish-speaking immigrants to the United States need to learn English to make the most of the American economy, but this does not mean they need to abandon Spanish. The Netherlands is an excellent example of a nation with a vibrant home language while encouraging the use of English and other European languages.

How does the death of one language diminish others?
Anyone who has studied English etymology knows that the answer to this is yes. Languages borrow from one another—and none do so more than English. Contact with speakers of other languages enriches a language, giving it access to words and concepts that it lacks. Reducing the number of languages inevitably reduces the opportunities for borrowing terms and concepts.

And it is not just borrowing words that is at stake. Language death means the loss of literature and folklore, written or oral. Even if written down and preserved, the literature becomes inaccessible to all but a handful of linguists who bother to learn a dead language.

History, too, loses valuable evidence when languages die. It is not simply the loss of the stories that are told, although this can be a tremendous loss in and of itself, but the very structure of language contains valuable historical clues. For example, there are no contemporary written accounts of the Anglo-Saxon conquest of England. Accounts such as Bede’s come centuries later and are often at odds with each other and with physical evidence. Language can come to our rescue. By studying the spelling (which reflected pronunciation much more than English does today) and word choice, we can often see which groups of Germanic invaders were dominant during a particular period or the extent to which they influenced one another.

The hard sciences can also suffer with the loss of languages, particularly indigenous languages. Indigenous peoples often make subtle distinctions in their languages relating to flora, fauna, and geology found in their regions. These distinctions are not always readily apparent to Western science and the indigenous languages can often point scientists to discoveries of new animal and plant species or to interesting geologic formations.

Finally, each language is interesting in and of itself. Each language is vital to the continuing study of linguistics and cognitive sciences. The loss of each language is the loss of valuable data, making it more difficult to further our understanding of these fields. There clearly is a problem with language death. The consequences may not be as severe as with the loss of biological species, a phenomenon with which language death is often compared, but the negative consequences are significant. The disappearance of languages across the globe.

Last month we saw that this is a growing problem. While languages have always died, they are disappearing at a greater rate today than in the past. This, coupled with the negative consequences of this that we have seen in this article, require that something be done to slow the disappearance and mitigate the consequences. Next month we’ll take a look at what steps can be taken to do this.

Holiday Shopping List

1 December 2004

What do you get the word lover in your family for Christmas? You get them a copy of Word Myths: Debunking Linguistic Urban Legends by David Wilton (Hardcover, Oxford University Press, 2004, $21.95). But of course they ran out to the book store on the first day the book was available, so that’s no good. What other books are out there that the discriminating logophile will enjoy? Here is a list, culled from those we’ve reviewed over the past few years.

New Dickson Baseball Dictionary by Paul Dickson (Paperback, Harvest Books, 1999, $20.00). This is without a doubt the best reference for baseball slang and jargon. Rigorously researched, Dickson gives usage citations for the earliest known appearance of most terms. A joy for both baseball fans and word lovers, a treasure for those who are both.

Power of Babel: A Natural History of Language by John McWhorter (Paperback, Perennial Books, 2003, $13.95). A superb and highly readable review of the processes of language change and comparative linguistics. McWhorter is insightful and intellectually daring.

The Man Who Deciphered Linear B by Andrew Robinson (Hardcover, Thames & Hudson, 2002, $19.95). This one is a bit different. It is a biography of Michael Ventris, the polymath who, in the mid-20th Century, was the first to successfully read the ancient Greek language known as Linear B. It is a fascinating account of a truly brilliant mind at work.

Predicting New Words: The Secrets of Their Success, by Allan Metcalf (Hardcover, Houghton Mifflin, 2002, $22.00). This book provides a theory for why certain new terms survive while most are rapidly forgotten. Metcalf also provides a formula for predicting the success of words while they are still new. Whether he is right or not will be known in about 50 years, but in the meantime it is still fun reading.

The Meaning of Everything: The Story of the Oxford English Dictionary, by Simon Winchester (Hardcover, Oxford University Press, 2003, $25.00). This is a “biography” of a dictionary. Winchester tells us the story of the Oxford English Dictionary, how it came into existence, the methodology used by the lexicographers, and the struggle to keep the project going over the decades. Above all, it is the story of a fascinating cast of characters who (mostly) labored in obscurity to produce what is probably the greatest reference work ever created.

Word Spy: The Word Lover’s Guide to Modern Culture, by Paul McFedries (Paperback, Broadway Books, 2004, $15.95). A wonderful collection of new terms from his excellent website (www.wordspy.com) which McFedries expertly ties to current cultural trends. Fascinating linguistics and sociology.

Dewdroppers, Waldos and Slackers: A Decade-By-Decade Guide to the Vanishing Vocabulary of the Twentieth Century, by Rosemarie Ostler (Hardcover, Oxford University Press, 2003, $25.00). Last but not least, this is the true gem of the list. Each chapter of this wonderful book addresses the terms that are emblematic of a particular decade in the 20th Century. From speakeasy to Trekkie, from jitterbug to hip-hop, no word lover should be without this book.

Capitalizing Internet

1 December 2004

2004 was a year of many milestones, but one small one that passed unnoticed by most was that on 16 August Wired News ceased to capitalize the word internet. “Effective with this sentence, Wired News will no longer capitalize the ‘I’ in internet,” wrote Tony Long, Wired News’ copy chief. On that date, Wired News also ceased to capitalize web and net, although it retains capitalization in World Wide Web.

The reason for capitalizing internet in the first place was that their are in actuality many different internets, or networks of computers linked by TCP/IP protocols (the IP stands for internet protocol). The largest of these, the global network with which we are all familiar, was capitalized to distinguish it from the smaller networks.

But the growth of the global internet brought about this change. It assimilated many of the smaller internets and those that survived as independent networks have been relegated to insignificance in the popular imagination. To most people, there is only one internet.

So Internet started losing its capital I. Like radio and television, it became just another communications medium and like those earlier technologies did not deserve a capital letter.

Some still capitalize it, of course. But the significance of the Wired News style change should not be underestimated. The practice of capitalizing the word is clearly on the way out.

Word of the Month: Christmas

1 December 2004

December is a month of holidays that have spawned any number of words and phrases that, while familiar, do not have obvious etymologies. Many are based on traditions that are quite old and the words survive only in their holiday incarnations. So, our word of the month for this December is Christmas, n., the festival, or mass, of Christ’s nativity, celebrated on 25 December, from the Old English Cristes mæsse, before 1123.

A list of words associated with Christmas and other December holidays follows:

advent, n., the period leading up to Christmas, esp. the four preceding Sundays, from the Old French, ultimately from the Latin adventus or arrival, c.1100.

angel, n., a spiritual being who serves as an attendant and messenger of God, c.1150, an Old English adoption from the Latin angelus, ultimately from the Greek angelos, messenger.

auld lang syne, c.phr., Scots dialectal phrase meaning days of long ago or old friendship (literally, old long since). The popular song of this name began life in 1721 and is by poet Allan Ramsay. The version that is most familiar today is a 1793 modification of the original by Robert Burns.

Boxing-day, n., the first weekday after Christmas, traditionally the day on which delivery persons and servants would receive a box of Christmas gifts, 1833.

carol, n. & v., a song in celebration of Christmas, 1502, from earlier sense of a joyful song, 1303, and a ring dance, before 1300. To sing such as song dates to before 1369 and to dance a ring dance from before 1300. From the Old French carole. The ultimate origin is uncertain, but it could either be from the Latin chorus or, if the origin is related to ring, carolla, meaning crown or garland.

Chanukah, n., Jewish festival celebrating the purification of the temple in Jerusalem by Judas Maccabaeus, beginning on the 25th of Kislev and lasting eight days (in November-December in the common calendar). From the Hebrew for consecration, in English use from 1891. Also spelled Hannukah.

Christ, n., title given to Jesus of Nazareth, from the Old English crist, ultimately from the Latin Christus and Greek christos, anointed, c.950.

crèche, n., a representation of the infant Jesus in the manger, used for display at Christmas, 1792, from the French for crib.

dreidel, n., a four-sided top inscribed with Hebrew letters used in children’s play during Chanukah, 1934, from the Yiddish dreydl, ultimately from the Middle High German draejen, to turn (mod. German drehen).

egg nog, n., a drink made with eggs, usually mixed with spirits, 1825, the nog is from the name of a strong East Anglian beer, of unknown origin, 1693.

elf, n., a supernatural being of Germanic folklore, in Christmas tradition elves assist Santa Claus, from the Old English aelf.

Epiphany, n., festival commemorating the manifestation of the infant Jesus to the Magi (the Gentiles), celebrated on 6 January, the twelfth day of Christmas, from the Old French epiphanie, ultimately from the Latin and Greek meaning to manifest, before 1310. Figurative use meaning a sudden appearance or revelation dates to before 1667.

Father Christmas, n., British name for the personification of Christmas as an old man with flowing, white beard who bears gifts, 1658.

Feast of Stephen, n., the festival of St. Stephen, celebrated on 26 December. In Britain the day was celebrated by servants killing a wren, in Celtic tradition this was usually considered unlucky, but not so on St. Stephen’s Day. The servants would carry the wren from house to house, requesting money or food. This eventually became the tradition of Boxing-day.

First Night, n., a non-alcoholic New Year’s Eve celebration featuring cultural events, the tradition began in Boston in 1976 and has spread to other cities.

frankincense, n., an aromatic gum resin from the tree genus Boswellia, used as incense, associated with Christmas as being one of the three gifts of the Magi, from Old French frank, meaning of superior quality, + incense, before 1387.

fruitcake, n., a cake containing fruit, traditionally eaten at Christmas, 1854.

gold, n., a yellow, precious metal, the chemical with the symbol Au, associated with Christmas as being one of the three gifts of the Magi, from the Old English from a common Germanic root.

holly, n., an evergreen shrub or tree with green, prickly leaves and red berries, commonly used as a Christmas decoration, from the Old English holen, c.1150.

humbug, n., a hoax, fraud, or sham, 1751, uttered by Ebeneezer Scrooge in Charles Dickens’ 1843 A Christmas Carol in reference to the holiday.

Immanuel, n., title given to Jesus of Nazareth, from Hebrew via Greek and Latin, literally meaning God is with us, 15th century, often Emmanuel.

Kwanzaa, n., a festival observed by many African-Americans, celebrated 26 December to 1 January. From the Swahili kwanza, meaning first. The full name of the festival is matunda ya kwanza, or first fruits (of the harvest). 1966.

magi, n., plural of magus, a Persian priest or astronomer, applied to the wise men, traditionally depicted as three, from the East who brought gifts to the infant Jesus, from the Latin and Greek, ultimately from Old Persian, 1377.  The names traditionally given them are 7th century, not Biblical. Balthasar is from the Babylonian Belu-sharu-usur, Bel protect the king. Gaspar is from the Persian Kansbar, treasurer. And Melchior is from the Hebrew meaning my king of light.

manger, n., an open box or trough out of which animals can eat fodder, from the Anglo-Norman mangure, ultimately from the Middle French mangeoire, to eat, in English use since before 1333.

menorah, n., an eight-branched candelabrum used during Chanukah celebrations, a seven-branched candelabrum used in the Temple in Jerusalem, now a symbol of Judaism, 1886, from the Hebrew.

Messiah, n., the deliverer of the Jewish people and savior of humanity as promised in Hebrew scriptures, from the Old English, ultimately from Hebrew, before 1200; in extended use, with lower case, to mean any liberator of an oppressed people, 1667.

mistletoe, n., a yellowish-green, hemi-parasitic shrub with white berries, Viscum album, that grows on the branches of trees, used in England as a Christmas decoration. The root mistle—, which is another name for the plant, has cognates in many Germanic languages. The –toe is from the Old English tan, or twig. The word dates to the Old English era.

myrrh, n., an aromatic gum resin from the genus Commiphora, used in perfumes and incense, associated with Christmas as being one of the three gifts of the Magi, from Old English, ultimately from the Latin murra and eventually Greek.

nativity, n., the birth of Jesus of Nazareth, from the Latin for birth, before 1230, applied to a person’s birth in general, c.1350.

noel, interj. & n., orig. nowell, a male name, usually given to boys born on Christmas, 12th century; a word of joy shouted at Christmas, c.1395; the feast of Christmas, c.1400; a Christmas carol, 1786; from the Middle French, a variant on the Latin natal.

partridge, n., a type of game bird, in Europe applied to Perdix cinera, in North America to one of several birds in the grouse or pheasant families, from the Middle English pertrich or partrich, and from there the Old French pertriz or perdriz, ultimately from Greek, c.1290.

plum pudding, n., a bread pudding with plums, traditionally eaten at Christmas, 1711.

poinsettia, n., Mexican flower, Euphorbia pulcherrima, consisting of bright, red leaves surrounding greenish-yellow flowers, used as a Christmas decoration, after J.R. Poinsett (1779-1851), American ambassador to Mexico, 1836.

reindeer, n., a type of deer, Rangifer tarandus, often domesticated, once common in Central Europe, now confined to sub-arctic regions, from the Old Norse hreindryi, the word hreinn is another name for the animal + dry or deer, before 1400. The names of Santa’s reindeer Dasher, Dancer, Prancer, Vixen, Comet, Cupid, Donder, and Blitzen first appear in Clement Moore’s 1822 poem A Visit From St. Nicholas. (Moore’s poem used the name Donder, subsequent tradition has altered this to the modern German Donner, meaning thunder.) The name Rudolph originated in a story written by Montgomery Ward copywriter Robert May in 1939 as a promotion for customers. The song, based on the story, was written by Gene Autry in 1949.

Saint Nicholas, n., name for Santa Claus or Father Christmas, after the 4th century Bishop of Myra and saint, feast day on 6 December. The historical saint’s connection to gift giving is in an apocryphal tale of three sisters, too poor to afford dowries. As each reached marriageable age, Nicholas anonymously delivered money during the night so they could be married. Some versions of the tale have the father waiting up to see who the benefactor was, only to have Nicholas drop the money down the chimney.

Santa Claus, n., American name for the imaginary person who supposedly brings gifts to children on Christmas, Father Christmas, after the Dutch dialectical Sante Klaas, 1773.

Saturnalia, n., the festival of Saturn, celebrated by the Romans in the middle of December, the timing and some of its traditions became associated with the Christian holiday of Christmas. From the Latin.

Scrooge, n., a miser, a curmudgeon, after the character in Dickens’s 1843 A Christmas Carol, figurative use dates to 1940.

sleigh, n., a carriage with runners for transport over snow and ice, a sledge, from the Dutch slee, chiefly North American in usage, 1703.

solstice, n., one of two dates, usually June 21 and December 22, when the sun reaches the tropics (is furthest from the equator) and appears to stop in the heavens, the winter solstice was a common pagan holiday and is used today by some non-Christians as a substitute celebration for Christmas, c.1250, from the Latin solstitium, sol (sun) + sistere (to stand still).

stocking, n., a garment covering the feet, ankles, and lower leg, a sock, the stock- is related to the instrument of punishment and is a reference to the tight-fitting nature of the garment and its location at the ankle, 1583.

sugar-plum, n., another name for candy, a generic term representing no particular type of sweet, before 1668.

tinsel, n., a cloth interwoven with silver or gold thread and so made to sparkle, thin strips of silver or gold (or similar looking alloy) used as decoration at Christmas, from the Old French estincelle, meaning sparkle or flash, 1526.

turtle dove, n., a bird of the genus Turtur, also used in North America and in Australia to denote native birds on those continents, the turtle is an echoic reference to the cooing of the dove, before 1300.

Twelfth Day, n., Epiphany, the twelfth day after Christmas, c.1000, traditionally considered the close of the Christmas festivities.

Twelfth Night, n., the night before Epiphany, traditionally associated with merry making, c.900.

wassail, n. & v., a drinking toast, literally a wish for good health and prosperity, from the Middle English waes haeil and the Old English wes hal, c. 1205. By 1300 the meaning had transferred to the liquor drunk in the toast and the verb sense meaning to drink or carouse had developed. By 1598, the term came to mean the drinking done on Twelfth Night or New Year’s Eve, or a few years later to any drinking fest. A bit later, 1607, it had come to mean a drinking song.

wreath, n., a circlet, a fillet, something wound into a circular shape, from the Old English writha, c.1000. Wreathes of evergreens are traditional Christmas decorations.

Xmas, abbrev., Christmas, 1551. X (the Greek letter Chi) has been in use as an abbreviation for Christ since before 1100.

yule, n., the festivities associated with Christmas and New Year’s, Christmastide, from the Old English geol, orig. a pagan celebration transferred to the Christian holiday, c.900.