Trojan War Terms

8 July 2005

Most of us are familiar with at least some military slang. We hear it on the news, or in movies, we served in the military at some point. But this week we present a look at some terms associated with a war from very long ago.

These terms are English words and phrases that are associated with the Trojan War, a mythic conflict immortalized in Homer’s two epics The Iliad and The Odyssey and in Virgil’s Aeneid.

Achilles’ heel, n, the only vulnerable spot. From the Greek warrior Achilles, who as an infant was dipped in the river Styx by his mother, the nymph Thetis, to protect him from harm, but she held him by the heel and that spot remained vulnerable. During the siege of Troy, Paris killed Achilles with an arrow to the heel. In figurative use in English since 1810. Also the Achilles’ tendon, name for the tendon in the heel, from 1900.

Beware of Greeks bearing gifts, c.phr., warning against those who give unexpected gifts, a reference to the Trojan Horse. From Virgil’s Aeneid:

Timeo Danaos et dona ferentes.
(I fear the Greeks, even when bringing gifts.)

Cassandra, n., a prophet who is not heeded. From Cassandra, the daughter of Trojan king Priam, who was gifted with prophecy by Apollo, but when she did not return his affections was also cursed in that no one would believe her. She foresaw the deception of the Trojan Horse and the fall of Troy, but no one heeded her warnings. In figurative use since before 1688.

Electra complex, n., psychological disorder where a woman has undue affection for her father and hostility toward her mother, the female version of an Oedipal complex. Coined by Jung in 1913 after Electra, daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, who avenged her father’s death by arranging for the killing of her mother, who had killed Agamemnon.

Face that launched a thousand ships, c.phr., a reference to Helen and the number of ships the Greeks were said to have sent to avenge her kidnapping by Paris. From Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus (1604):

Was this the face that launch’d a thousand ships,
And burnt the topless towers of Ilium?
Sweet Helen, make me immortal with a kiss!
Her lips suck forth my soul: see where it flies!

Hector, n. & v., a braggart or bully, to bully or intimidate. From Hector, the hero of Troy. In metaphorical use since 1655, after a London gang that had taken the name of the character.

Lotus-eater, n., one who surrenders to luxury and sloth. From the people encountered by Odysseus who ate Lotus flowers and thus drugged, forgot the cares of the world. In figurative use since 1847.

milli-Helen, n., unit of beauty capable of launching one ship. In jocular use.

odyssey, n., a long journey, a series of journeys. After Odysseus and the Homeric poem of that name that detailed Odysseus’s twenty-year journey home after the Trojan War, a journey that was a punishment of the gods for his conceiving of the idea for the Trojan Horse and the slaughter that followed.

Sinon, n., a liar. After the Greek warrior Sinon, who according to Virgil, was left behind by the Greeks to induce the Trojans to take the horse within the city walls. In figurative use since 1581.

Siren, n., an attractive woman, one who charms and deceives. From the mythological creatures, half bird, half woman, who lured sailors to their deaths on rocky shoals with their singing. Odysseus successfully sailed past the Sirens by plugging his sailors’ ears with wax, but had himself tied to the mast so he could hear their song. First used figuratively by Shakespeare in The Comedy of Errors.

Trojan, n., a good companion, a merry fellow. Since 1600.

Trojan horse, n., a deception that entails a person or thing being accepted into confidence or possession and then subsequently betraying that trust, a computer program that is deliberately installed on a system but which contains hidden instructions that cause damage. From the deception used by the Greeks to penetrate the walls of Troy. In figurative use since 1600. Computer usage dates to 1981.

Newspaper Jargon

1 July 2005

This week we present a short glossary of newspaper jargon terms:

above the fold, adj., used to describe an article placed on the top half of the front page, so it is visible when the paper is folded. Also below the fold.

agate, n., a small type used in newspapers primarily for statistics (sports, stocks), approximately 5.5 points (1/14 inch) high. An American term (the English equivalent is ruby type) dating to 1838, the name comes from a series of typefaces named after precious stones.

beat, n., subject matter habitually covered by a reporter. The term dates to 1721 in reference to a watchman’s round or course, generalizing to other professions and activities by 1786. Ultimately, it comes from the verb to beat, probably from the feet beating the ground, but perhaps from beat over old ground or to beat the bounds.

break, n., the continuation of a story on another page, cf. jump.

breakline, n., the last line of a paragraph; In good typographic practice, it should contain at least five letters and should not be used to begin a new page or column; since 1683.

broadsheet, n., a newspaper printed on large, sheets of paper folded along the width; a newspaper containing serious journalism about important issues; since 1840. Cf. tabloid.

budget, n., the amount of space given to a news department to print its stories.

bulldog, adj., US term indicative of an evening edition of a newspaper, 1926.

bury the lede/lead, v. phr., to place what should be the prominent story inside the paper, to place the most important element of the article many paragraphs down, cf. stuff.

by-line, n., the line in an article, usually at the top, that names the writer, 1926.

column inch, n., measurement of space in a newspaper, a one inch tall by one column wide space, since at least 1940.

copy desk, n., where articles are edited and headlines and captions are assigned, 1929.

cutline, n., a caption, 1938.

dateline, n., the line in an article, usually at the top, that designates the date the article was filed and usually the place it was filed from, 1888.

deadline, n., the time at which material must be ready in order for it to appear in a particular edition of the paper, 1920.

embargo, n. & v., a condition placed on source material that prevents publication before a specific date, to place such a condition on material given to a newspaper. Sources often give information to papers in advance so that stories can be written and editions planned.

evergreen, adj., used to describe a story that can be run at any time, a feature story as opposed to a topical one.

FOIA, n. & v., pronounced / foy-yah /, the Freedom of Information Act, a 1966 US law that requires the federal government to release records to anyone who asks for them, with exceptions made for records containing private information about individuals, national security information, etc.; to request government records under this law.

folio, n., the page number and, usually, the newspaper name and date which appears in the upper, outer corner of a page, since 1683.

front, v., to place a story on the front page.

gutter, n., the space between columns.

inside, n., the parts of the newspaper other than the front and back pages.

jump line, n., the line just before or after a jump that indicates the page and column where the story continues or originates. Also turn line.

jump, n., the continuation of a story on another page, cf. break.

justify, v., to align type so that it is even on the left and right hand sides, 1671.

lead, n., pronounced / led /, the space between lines in a page, from the strip of lead that was once used to separate lines of type, 1808.

lead, n., pronounced / leed /, the most important article in the paper, usually placed in the upper right columns of the front page.

lede, n., the start of a story, summarizing the essential elements and containing a hook to keep the reader’s attention, variant spelling of lead used to avoid confusion with the preceding.

mainbar, n., the primary story in a cluster of articles about a particular topic, a back formation from sidebar.

masthead, n., 1. the title of the newspaper, from the location at the top center of the front page analogous to the masthead of a ship, by extension the newspaper itself, 1838. 2. the list of publishers and editors, contact information, subscription rates and information, etc., usually on the editorial page in one the first few pages of the paper, 1934.

morgue, n., 1. the repository of information on persons to be used in writing their obituaries, 1903. 2. the paper’s collection of old articles, clippings, and reference materials, 1918.

off-lead, n., the second most important story in the paper, usually placed either in the upper left corner of the front page or on the right-hand side, directly below the lead.

op-ed, n., the page facing the editorial page, usually containing outside commentary and letters to the editor, from opposite editorial, 1931.

pica, n., a unit of measurement equal to one sixth of an inch or twelve points, of uncertain origin, 1588.

point, n., a unit of measurement equal to 1/72 of an inch, 1890.

pool, n., a group of reporters from various publications who cover a particular beat and take it in turns to stand duty, sharing information and reportage with each other; used when only a limited number or reporters can be accommodated; from the betting sense of a resource into which everyone contributes; in general use to mean a shared pool of workers since 1928.

proof, n., a printed copy of an article before it has gone to press, used for editing and correcting errors, from the sense of something produced for use in a test, 1600.

refer, n., pronounced / reefer /, a short notice on the front page of an article or feature contained inside, from referral or reference. Also known as a whip.

scoop, v. & n., to report a story before the competition, a story so reported. In journalistic use since 1884, from the gambling sense of to scoop the pot, to get the better of, to beat, 1850.

side-bar, n., a newspaper article that contains secondary information related to another, main story, 1948.

slug, n. & v., internal title for a story, usually one word, to give a story such a title, 1925. Also slug-line.

spike, v., to refuse to print a story, to kill a story, from the act of spindling deficient stories, 1908.

spread, n., a story that runs across the whole of two facing pages.

string, n., the columns set by a compositor or written by a correspondent attached in a long strip, the length of which was used to determine compensation, 1875.

stringer, n., a correspondent or photographer who is not an employee of the paper, but does piece work, 1952. See preceding.

strip, n., a story that runs across the entire width of a page.

stuff, v., to place a story, esp. an important one, inside the paper.

tabloid, adj. & n., characteristic of reporting that makes the news understandable and accessible, often sensational and lurid; also used to refer to newspapers printed on smaller sheets, folded lengthwise (cf. broadsheet). In journalistic use since 1901 as an adjective, 1918 as a noun, from an earlier pharmaceutical trademark for tablet or pill.

Words of the Street

24 June 2005

A toponym is a name of something that denotes a geographical place, usually the place of origin of the thing named. The words spa (a town in Belgium), Watergate (a hotel and office building, site of famous burglary), and rugby (a school in Britain) are toponyms for, respectively, a resort, a political scandal, and a sport.

Among toponyms, a few are street names that have come to be associated with industries and activities located there. Perhaps the most famous is Wall Street, the toponym meaning the US financial markets. The metaphorical use comes from the fact that many of the largest financial institutions have traditionally had their headquarters on that Manhattan Street. The metaphorical usage dates to 1841.

Probably created in emulation of Wall Street, the term Bay Street refers to the Canadian financial markets, after the road in Toronto on which many financial institutions are located. This usage is rather recent, dating only to 1984. On the other side of the continent, Sand Hill Road is emblematic of the venture capital industry that fuels Silicon Valley (another toponym of a sort, but not a street), after the street in Palo Alto where many VC firms reside. The metaphorical use of Sand Hill Road dates to 1988.

Wall Street is not the only New York City street-name toponym. As one can imagine, the most important city in the United States has contributed several others. Sharing the limelight with Wall Street is Broadway, a term for the world of the theater, after the street where many theaters are located. The metaphorical use of Broadway is almost as old as its financial cousin, dating to 1881.

Since 1944, Madison Avenue has served the same function for the American advertising industry. Park Avenue has been a synonym for wealth and high society since 1923. And Tin Pan Alley has referred to the music business since 1903. Unlike the others, Tin Pan Alley is a nickname and not an official name for the street in question, West 18th Street between Broadway and 6th Avenue.

The de facto capital of the US, Washington, DC gives us a couple of street toponyms. The most famous being the Beltway, a reference to the ring road that surrounds the city and standing for the federal government. It is most commonly used in the phrase inside the Beltway (1977) and in the term Beltway bandit (1978), meaning a government contractor.

More recently, Washington has given us K Street, a term referring to political consultants and lobbyists, many of whom have their offices there. The metaphorical use dates to 1984. The most famous incarnation of K Street was in the title of a 2003 HBO series about Washington produced by George Clooney and Steven Soderbergh.

On the other side of the pond, London gives us its share of street name toponyms. Fleet Street is used to refer to the British press, after the numerous newspapers that were once located there. This usage dates to 1882. Even older is Harley Street, since 1830 used to refer to the medical profession, especially the specialists at the top of the profession.

High Street is a term used to refer to retail shops, after the name of the central street in many British towns. The metaphorical use is relatively recent, only from 1959. Its American counterpart, Main Street, has a different metaphorical meaning. Since 1916, it has been used to refer to small town America.

A far cry from Park Avenue, Wall Street, and even Main and High Streets is Skid Row, a synonym for poverty since 1931. Skid Row or Skid Road was a common name in 19th century America for logging roads paved with logs or timber. The claim that the original Skid Row was in Seattle is false—the earliest known use is from the Adirondack region of New York. The metaphorical sense stems from the wild and wooly logging camps found along such roads.

Finally, a synonym for Skid Row is another street, Tobacco Road. This one has a literary origin, it’s from the title of Erskine Caldwell’s 1932 novel and play.

Theories & Intelligent Design

17 June 2005

The Kansas State Board of Education is currently debating whether a theory called intelligent design should be used to present criticisms of evolution in Biology classes. The board, which has an evangelical Christian conservative majority, is widely expected to approve a measure that requires criticism of evolution be taught in Kansas schools, but the exact nature and wording of the new policy is still in the works.

The current push for intelligent design as an alternative to evolution has its roots in the US courts striking down the teaching of creation science. Creation science is the teaching of the literal text of Genesis as scientific truth. US federal courts have consistently ruled that creation science is a religious doctrine, not scientific truth and its instruction in public schools is a violation of the First Amendment to the US Constitution, which forbids the establishment of a state religion. Intelligent design skirts this prohibition by not advocating any specific creation story, but rather simply argues that the complexity of nature requires that there be a designer; many organisms and biological structures are too complex to have come about by chance.

Despite the current push for intelligent design being a response to the courtroom failures of creation science, intelligent design is the older of the two terms; it even predates Darwin’s concept of evolution by natural selection. The Oxford English Dictionary dates intelligent design to 1847, in an article in Scientific American:

The great store-house of nature—the innumerable and diversified objects there presented to our view give evidence of infinite skill and intelligent design in the adaptation to each other and to the nature of man.

The term creation science, on the other hand, is cited in the OED only as early as 1979, in a cite from the Los Angeles Times:

A law suit seeking to include ‘scientific creation’ as part of biological science classes has been filed by the Creation Science Research Center, a non-profit, San Diego-based group that publishes creation textbooks.

Like intelligent design, the term evolution also predates Darwin. Geologist Charles Lyell first used it in the current sense as an explanation for the origin of species in 1832:

The testacea of the ocean existed first, until some of them by gradual evolution, were improved into those inhabiting the land.

Darwin not use the term evolution himself, preferring the term natural selection, coined by him in 1857 to describe the process driving evolution.

Those who advocate for intelligent design or creation science or whatever the term du jour is, criticize evolution as being "only a theory." They argue that it is not a law and therefore not proven. This argument is at best ignorant and at worst disingenuous. The word theory, like most English words, has multiple meanings. One of these meanings is that of a hypothesis, an untested explanation. This may indeed by the most common use of the word, as in "I have a theory about that," but this is not the meaning used by scientists when they say the "theory of evolution" or the "theory of relativity." The OED defines this sense of theory as:

A scheme or system of ideas or statements held as an explanation or account of a group of facts or phenomena; a hypothesis that has been confirmed or established by observation or experiment, and is propounded or accepted as accounting for the known facts; a statement of what are held to be the general laws, principles, or causes of something known or observed.

Theories do not become laws when they are proven. Rather a scientific law is something else entirely. The OED defines this sense of law as:

A theoretical principle deduced from particular facts, applicable to a defined group or class of phenomena, and expressible by the statement that a particular phenomenon always occurs if certain conditions be present.

Principles or laws flow from theories. The explanatory power of a theory allows for laws to be deduced.

This also points to one of the primary failings of intelligent design—it is not a theory as it lacks explanatory power. It cannot be used as a basis for further scientific work. Successful theories are predictive; they allow the conceptualization of natural phenomena long before they are actually observed. Einstein’s Theory of Relativity, for example, postulated that gravity could alter the path of light a half century or so before astronomers actually saw objects behind stars because the light from those objects was being "bent around" the stars in its path. Natural selection predicted that adaptations like antibiotic resistant bacteria and changing camouflage patterns corresponding to long-term environmental change would be observed by scientists. Intelligent design simply states that a "designer" created life. It offers no mechanism for this creation, no predictions about future discoveries, no laws that can be deduced from it, nothing on which to build a basis for further inquiries. It is not science, but dogmatism.

Intelligent design lacks another primary element of science—it is not falsifiable. It cannot be proven to be wrong; it is untestable. One cannot prove that a designer does not exist. Science is founded on the principle of falsifiability, of being able to test whether or not something is true.

So what does this have to do with language? To be sure, we’ve examined the definitions and origins of a few words, but the debate over intelligent design has little to do with the subjects we usually address here. But it does have relevance to linguistics (and any other systematic form of inquiry). It goes to the integrity of science, not just the "hard sciences" of physics, chemistry, or biology, but to all forms of empirical inquiry.

I wrote a book on linguistic myths, myths propagated by those who do not apply commonly accepted standards of inquiry and evidence, just as the advocates of intelligent design fail to apply the standards of scientific inquiry to biology. The linguistic tales I debunked in my book are not of great consequence, but our understanding of biological world is and the prospect of a state school system deliberately turning its back on 500 years of scientific and technical achievements is not only appalling, but the abandonment of science is a grave threat to our continuing economic prosperity.