squaw

January 3, 2022

3 January 2022

In English usage squaw is a pejorative and harmful term for an Indigenous woman of North America. In Algonquian languages, it is a neutral term, but in English squaw has a misogynist and racist connotation and is best avoided, especially by non-Indigenous speakers. It was first borrowed into English from the Massachusett squa, meaning a young, unmarried woman, but it has cognates in other Algonquian languages, where the root has the more general meaning of woman.

Squaw first appears in English writing in William Bradford’s 1622 account of the initial years of the Plymouth colony in Massachusetts in a description of the meeting with the chief of the local, Indigenous community:

The Sachim, or Gouernour of this place, is called Obbatinewat, and though he liue in the bottome of the Massachuset bay, yet he is vnder Massasoyt. He vsed vs very kindly, he told vs, he durst not then remaine in any setled place, for feare of the Terentines. Also the Squa Sachim, or Massachusets Queene was an enemy to him.
We told him of diuers Sachims that had acknowledged themselues to be King IAMES his men, and if he also would submit himselfe, we would be his safegard from his enemies; which he did, and went along with vs to bring vs to the Squa Sachim.

John Winthrop also uses it in his journal entry for 23 March 1631:

Chickatabot came with his Sanopps & squaes, & presented the Gouernor with a [hogshead] of Indian Corne. after they had all dined & had eache a small cuppe of sacke & beades & the men tabacko: he sent awaye all his men and women (thoughe the Gouernor would have stayed them in regard of the rayne & thunder) himselfe and one squa and one Sanoppe, stayed all night, & beinge in English Clothes, the Gouernor sett him at his owne table, where he behaved him selfe as soberly &c: as an Englishe man.

Chickabot was the sagamore (i.e., chief) of the Massachusett Indians living south of Boston. A sanopp is a married man or warrior. The manuscript is difficult to read, and James Savage’s nineteenth-century transcription of the journal records the word beades as beer.

But by the mid nineteenth century, squaw was being used in English as a term of abuse. For example, there is this in John Beauchamp Jones’s 1849 Wild Western Scenes where the word is used to refer to an Indigenous woman, and then the word is taken back because she is young and beautiful:

“Why, hang it all! Was there nothing running after me but this squaw?” asked Joe, who had ventured forth again unobserved, and now stood beside Glenn and Mary.
“Silence!” said Glenn.
“Oh, don’t call her a squaw, Joe—she’s more like an angel than a squaw,” said Mary, gazing tenderly at the lovers while tears were yet standing in her eyes.
“I won’t do so again,” said Joe, “because she’s the prettiest wild thing I ever saw; and if Mr. William don’t marry her, I will.”

The word has also been used to refer to an effeminate man, especially in Indigenous contexts. For example, there is this from Zebulon Pike’s account of his first expedition into the American West. The entry is from 14 September 1805; it was published in 1810:

Met the remainder of the war party (before noted) of the Sacs and Reynards, returning from their expedition against the Sauteurs. I directed my interpreter to ask how many scalps they had taken, they replied “none;” he added they were all squaws, for which I reprimanded him.

So, if you’re tempted to use the word, you probably shouldn’t.

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Sources:

Bradford, William. A Relation or Iournall of the Beginning and Proceedings of the English Plantation Setled at Plimoth in New England. London: J. Dawson for John Bellamie, 1622, 57–58. Early English Books Online (EEBO).

Green’s Dictionary of Slang, 2021, s.v. squaw, n.

Jones, John Beauchamp [Luke Shortfield, pseud.]. Wild Western Scenes. Philadelphia: Grigg, Elliot, 1849, 237. HathiTrust Digital Archive.

Oxford English Dictionary, third edition, March 2019, modified June 2021, s.v. squaw, n.

Pike, Zebulon M. An Account of the Expeditions to the Sources of the Mississippi. Philadelphia: C. & A. Conrad, et al., 1810, 19–20. HathiTrust Digital Archive.

Winthrop, John. The Journal of John Winthrop 1630–1649. Richard S. Dunn, James Savage, and Laetitia Yeandle, eds. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard UP, 1996, 47.

Winthrop, John. A Journal of the Transactions and Occurrences in the Settlement of Massachusetts and the Other New-England Colonies. Hartford: Elisha Babcock, 1790, 24. Eighteenth Century Collections Online.

Image credit: Charles Bird King, 1842; Lehman and Duval, lithographers. DeGolyer Library, Southern Methodist University. Public domain image.

spud

December 29, 2021

29 December 2021

Spud is a slang term for a potato (cf. potato). The word comes from the name of a digging implement used to uproot them, which in turn is from a term for a short knife or dagger. The ultimate origin of spud is unknown.

Text describing and an image of a spud, from Markham’s 1613 The English Husbandman. The text is quoted in the article. The image depicts a staff with an iron blade at one end. — Text describing and an image of a *spud*, from Markham’s 1613 *The English Husbandman*. The text is quoted in the article. The image depicts a staff with an iron blade at one end.

The earliest known use of spud, in the sense of a knife, is from c.1440. It appears in the Promptorium parvulorum, an English–Latin dictionary:

Spudd: Cultellus Vilis.
(Spud: inexpensive/cheap knife)

Spud also appears in a play from about the same period, c.1450, The Castle of Perseverance:

Therfore, Mankynde, in this tokenynge,
Wyth spete of spere to thee I spynne,
      Goddys lawys to thee I lerne.
Wyth my spud of sorwe swote
I reche to thyne hert rote.
Al thi bale schal torne thee to bote.
      Mankynde, go schryve thee yerne.
(Therefore, Mankind, in tokening of this,
With the point of a spear I move rapidly to you,
      I teach God’s law to you.
With my spud of sweet sorrow
I reach to your heart’s root.
All your torment shall turn you to comfort.
Mankind, go confess quickly.)

But by the early seventeenth century, spud was being used to refer to a digging implement, a sharp blade, mounted on a staff or handle, for cutting through clots of soil and through roots. From Gervase Markham’s 1613 book The English Husbandman:

Now you shall vnderstand that there is one other thing belonging to the Plough, which albe it be no member thereof, yet is it so necessary that the Husbandman which liueth in durty and stiffe clayes can neuer goe to Plough without it, and it is called the Aker-staffe, being a pretty bigge cudgell, of about a yarde in length, with an Iron spud at the end, according to this figure:

Spuds were also used to dig up root vegetables, like potatoes. And by the mid nineteenth century, the word was being used to refer to potatoes themselves, an example of the form of semantic change known as metonymy. We can see this in Edward Wakefield’s 1845 Adventure in New Zealand:

Then every article of trade with the natives has its slang term,—in order that they may converse with each other respecting a purchase without initiating the native into their calculations. Thus pigs and potatoes were respectively represented by “grunters” and “spuds;” guns, powder, blankets, pipes, and tobacco, by “shooting-sticks, dust, spreaders, steamers,” and “weed;” A chief was called a “nob;” a slave, a “doctor;” a woman, a “heifer;” a girl, a “titter;” and a child, a “squeaker.”

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Sources:

The Castle of Perseverance, David Klausner, ed. Kalamazoo, Michigan: Medieval Institute Publications, 2010, lines 1395–1402. Washington, D.C., Folger Shakespeare Library, MS V.a.354 (5031).

Green’s Dictionary of Slang, 2021, s.v. spud, n.3.

Markham, Gervase. The English Husbandman. London: Thomas Snodham for John Browne, 1613, sig. C1-r. Early English Text Society (EEBO).

Middle English Dictionary, 2019, s.v. spud(de, n.

Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, 1989, s.v. spud, n.

Promptorium parvulorum. Mayhew, Anthony Lawson., ed. Early English Text Society 102. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, 1908, 430. London, British Library, MS Harley 221. HathiTrust Digital Archive.

Wakefield, Edward Jerningham. Adventure in New Zealand, vol. 1 of 2. London: John Murray, 1845, 319. HathiTrust Digital Archive.

Image credit: Markham’s 1613 The English Husbandman, sig. C1-r. Early English Text Society (EEBO).

duck, duck, goose

December 28, 2021

28 December 2021

Sometimes you search and search and come up with nothing. Such is the case with the origin of the children’s game Duck, Duck, Goose, or as it is called in Minnesota, Duck, Duck, Gray Duck. While I can find references to the game going back to the 1920s, I can find nothing other than speculation as to the origin or why the game has different wording in Minnesota.

The earliest mention of the game that I have found is in the Oak Park, Illinois weekly paper Oak Leaves for 26 July 1924. The paper also gives a succinct description of the game:

The girls had tired of “Last Couple Out” by this time, so I entered “Duck, Duck, Goose!” the chosen “it” runs around the outside of the circle touching the heads of those of the circle. He names about three “Duck.” But, on touching the fourth and saying “Goose,” he is immediately pursued around the circle. This is but a variation of “drop the handkerchief” without the hanky.

The choice of goose is probably due to that word’s long use to mean a fool or simpleton. The duck was probably chosen simply to contrast with the goose. We can see just such a use of goose in an anonymous sermon from 1547:

If I be euil reuiled, shall I stand stil like a goose, or a foole, with my finger in my mouth? Shal I be such an ydiot & diserde, to suffre euery man to speake upon me, what they list, to rail what thei list, to raile what thei list, to spewe out all their venyme agaynst me; at their pleasures? Is it not conuenient, that he that speaketh euill shoulde be aunswered accordingly?

I found a 1936 reference to the Minnesota variant, duck, duck, gray duck, but no clue as to why the wording is different. From Foster and Headley’s Education in the Kindergarten:

Duck, Duck, Grey Duck
Formation: Circle.
Action: The child who is it runs around the outside of the circle. As he passes the children he touches certain individuals and says “Duck, Duck, Grey Duck.” When he touches the child and says “Grey Duck” he starts to run, and the child tagged follows in pursuit trying to catch him. If he is caught before he returns to his place, he must go into the middle of the circle, and there he must stay squatting like a duck until the game is over.

Both Foster and Headley were Minnesotans who had taught kindergarten and were professors of education at the University of Minnesota. But they give no explanation for why gray duck rather than the standard goose.

I have seen suggestions that a similar game in Sweden is called Anka, Anka, Grå Anka, which is literally Duck, Duck, Gray Duck, and that Swedish immigrants brought that version of the game to Minnesota, which has a large Nordic population. Such variations in children’s games is common (cf. ring around the rosie), so the explanation is plausible and could very well be correct, but I have yet to see any actual evidence to support it.

An innovation in the Minnesota version of the game is to use a variety of colors, such as red duck, blue duck, green duck, gray duck, and when gray duck is spoken, the pursuit begins. But as can be seen from the 1936 version listed above, this is a relatively new addition to the game and can’t explain what gray duck is doing there in the first place.

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Sources:

Dictionary of American Regional English (DARE), 2013, s.v. duck duck goose, n.

“An Homelie Agaynst Contencion and Braulynge” (1547). Certayne Sermons, or Homilies Appoynted by the Kynges Maiestie, to Bee Declared and Redde by All Persons. London: Rychard Grafton, 1547, sig. Y2.v. Early English Books Online (EEBO).

Foster, Josephine C. and Neith E. Headley, Education in the Kindergarten. New York: American Book, 1936, 244. HathiTrust Digital Archive.

Macalus, Austen. “Why Are Minnesotans the Only Ones to Play Duck, Duck, Gray Duck?” Star Tribune (Minneapolis), 26 April 2019. https://www.startribune.com/why-do-minnesotans-play-duck-duck-gray-duck-instead-of-duck-duck-goose/502474351/

“Playground Venture.” Oak Leaves (Oak Park, Illinois), 26 July 1924, 43. NewspaperArchive.com.

Strickler, Jeff. “The Game Is Duck, Duck Gray Duck. Or Is It?” Star Tribune (Minneapolis), 26 March 2014.

Photo credit: Sage Ross, 2007. Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

spic / spiggoty

December 27, 2021

27 December 2021

Spic is a derogatory and offensive name for a Latin American or Hispanic person. The term arose out of the US acquisition and occupation of Puerto Rico following the 1898 Spanish-American War. It is probably a clipping of an older, now largely obsolete term, spiggoty, which was applied to immigrants from Central and South America because they did not spikka da English.

Spiggoty, in the form spickety, appears in a syndicated newspaper article in the Daily Iowa State Press of 24 August 1899 about an American army officer in Puerto Rico who heroically organized a fire-fighting brigade to extinguish a fire in his artillery battery’s magazine, a fire that threatened not only his camp, but also the nearby town. The next day, the townspeople delivered gifts of flowers to the lieutenant:

“Do you think,” said Sentry Laird to the alcade after the floral offering had been made and accepted—“do you think for a minnit that Leftenant Bobbie done the Hobson act for the likes of you? ’Twas for the Battery M of Seventh that worruk was did last night, I can tell you those, and you’re not the first Spickety that has been here to day to lave a bookkay for him doin’ it.”

The form spiggoty and an explanation for the term’s origin appears in the New York Times of 20 May 1900:

The American designation of the native is Spiggoty, accented on the first syllable. Its origin is indefinite, but it may have come from the native ambition to speak English and to inform all comers of that desire. The native tongue, accustomed to soft letters, struggles hard with the k in “speak,” and makes it sound like g cut off short. English is Ingles. When “speak English” encounters a Porto Ricon, the result may be not unlike “spiggely,” which some Anglo-Saxon mind roughened into “spiggoty.” Whatever the origin, one hears everywhere of spiggoty people, spiggoty money, and all else spiggoty. Everybody uses the term, the natives having almost accepted it as a proper designation. If into some official document sent to Washington it should slip, the public may know that it has come to stay, and that a fresh coin has enriched the language.

Despite what the Times said, it’s hard to believe that Puerto Ricans accepted the term graciously. When you’re under military occupation, you pretend to like what the occupiers call you. That Puerto Ricans disliked the name is made clear in the following piece, which also is the earliest attestation of the abbreviated form spig. From an article in The World’s Work of January 1906:

Porto Ricans writhe under the contemptuous name of “Spigs,” but there is little wonder that this piece of American slang has become a fixture.

The spik form is in place by 1933, when it appears in Ernest Hemingway’s short story The Gambler, the Nun, and the Radio:

Outside in the corridor the detective sergeant stood with the interpreter beside Mr. Frazer's wheeled chair.
"I suppose you think somebody shot him in the back too?"
"Yes," Frazer said. "Somebody shot him in the back. What's it to you?"
"Don't get sore," the sergeant said. "I wish I could talk spik."
"Why don't you learn?"
"You don't have to get sore. I don't get any fun out of asking that spik questions. If I could talk spik it would be different."
"You don't need to talk Spanish," the interpreter said. "I am a very reliable interpreter."
"Oh, for Chrisake," the sergeant said. "Well, so long. I'll come up and see you."

Discuss this post

Sources:

Green’s Dictionary of Slang, 2021, s.v. spic, n., sippoty, n.

Hemingway, Ernest. “The Gambler, the Nun, and the Radio.” Winner Take Nothing. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1933. Project Gutenberg Canada.

“Light-Hearted Porto Rico.” New York Times, 20 May 1900, 12. ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

Lyle, Eugene P. “Our Experience in Porto Rico.” The World’s Work, 11.3, January 1906, 7082. HathiTrust Digital Archive.

Oxford English Dictionary, third edition, September 2021, s.v. spic, n. and adj., spiggoty, n. and adj.

Saul, Milt. “Lieutenant Bobbie. A True Story of a Thrilling Incident of the Campaign in Porto Rico” (syndicated). Daily Iowa State Press (Iowa City), 24 August 1899, 7. Readex: America’s Historical Newspapers.

frankincense

December 26, 2021

20 December 2021

[26 December 2021, updated with correction to the etymology of the Greek from Languagehat.com.]

Frankincense is the aromatic resin of the trees of the genus Boswellia that is burned as incense. Frankincense is perhaps best known as one of the gifts the Magi bring to the infant Jesus. The Vulgate Matthew 2:11 reads:

et intrantes domum invenerunt puerum cum Maria matre ejus et procidentes adoraverunt eum et apertis thesauris suis obtulerunt ei munera aurum tus et murram. (Vulgate)
(On coming to the house, they saw the child with his mother Mary, and they bowed down and worshipped him. Then they opened their treasures and presented him with gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh—New Revised Standard Version.)

The Latin tus or thus can refer to incense generally and the resin of the genus Boswellia in particular. The Koine Greek original is λίβανος (libanos, frankincense). The Greek, in turn, is probably a borrowing from a Semitic language—the Arabic word for it is luban, and the Proto-Semitic root is *lbn, meaning white, a reference to the milky appearance of the resin as it flows from the tree.

The English word is borrowed from the Anglo-Norman phrase franc encens. The basic meaning of franc is free, but it can also mean noble or distinguished. In other words, the term means high-quality incense. The Anglo-Latin francum incensum makes an appearance in 1206, although the more usual Latin nomenclature was liberum incensum. However, there is a slight problem with this etymology in that while the Latin liber means free, it was not generally used to mean noble or distinguished. Additionally, the noble/distinguished sense of franc in Anglo-Norman and Continental Old French was, as a rule, only applied to the social status of people. Francencens is the only example in Old French where franc is applied to a plant.

That issue does not rule the standard etymology out, but it does suggest an alternative. It may be that the Latin liberum incensum is a re-analysis of the Greek libanos, turning the Greek word into a more familiar adjective in Latin. The franc would then be a straightforward translation of the Latin, with a subsequent semantic shift to mean noble/high quality, as that would make more sense in the context of incense

Frankincense, or variations thereof, appear in Latin, French, and English in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The date corresponds to the rise of the cult of the Magi and the growing importance of the Magi in Christian worship and iconography. For instance, the Shrine of the Three Kings in Cologne, a reliquary said to contain the bones of the three Magi, was built in the thirteenth century.

The Anglo-Norman francencens may have appeared as early as 1216 in a copy of a trade record from early in the reign of Henry III. It appears in a list of customs duties for products arriving in the city of London. The problem is that this is in a fifteenth-century manuscript (the Liber Albus) that purports to reproduce a thirteenth century document. Whether the word appeared in the original or whether it is an interpolation by a later scribe is unknown.

John Gower uses the phrase franc encens in his Mirour de l’Omme, written c. 1370:

En genullant luy font offrens,
C’est orr et mirre et franc encens,
En demoustrance par figure
Qu’il estoit Rois sure toutes gens,
Et verray dieus omnipotens,
Et mortiel homme en sa nature.
(Kneeling, they make offerings to him of gold and myrrh and frankincense, demonstrating that he was king of all peoples, and truly both omnipotent God and mortal man in his nature.)

Frankincense appears in English use in the closing years of the fourteenth century. One early and instructive appearance is in John Trevisa’s 1398 translation of Bartholomæus Anglicus’s De proprietatibus rerum (On the Properties of Things):

Sabea is a cuntrey in Arabia and [haþ] þe name of Saba þe sone of Chus. Þis cuntrey streccheþ in streyȝt lengþe estwarde toward þe see Persicum, and is nyȝe to Caldea in þe norþe, and endeth at þe [see] of Arabia in the weste, and is nyȝe to Ethiopia in þe southe. And þis londe bereþ [thus] frannkincense and ȝeueþ goode smelles, for in wodes and lanndes þerof groweth myrre, canel, thus, and oþer swete spicerie.
(Saba is a country in Arabia and has the name of Saba, the son of Chus. This country stretches in a straight line eastward toward the Persian Sea, and is near to Chaldea in the north, and ends at the Arabian Sea in the west, and is near to Ethiopia in the south. And this land bears frankincense and gives good odors, for in the woods and lands thereof grow myrrh, cinnamon, incense, and other sweet spices.)

All the extant manuscripts of Trevisa are copies (or copies of copies) of an original. The published edition of Trevisa’s work that I take this quotation from uses London, British Library, MS Additional 27944 as the base manuscript. The words in square brackets appear in other manuscripts and are thought to be in Trevisa’s original. Bartholomæus Anglicus’s Latin reads est autem regio thurifera (and this is an incense-producing region). Trevisa’s original seems to have included both thus and frankincense, indicating that he thought frankincense would be unfamiliar to many readers. The fact that later copies omit the Latin word indicates that within a few years the word frankincense had become familiar.

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Sources:

Anglo-Norman Dictionary, 2008. s.v. francencens, franc.

Bibla Sacra Iuxta Vulgatem Versionem, fifth edition. Robert Weber and Roger Gryson, eds. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, Matthew 2:11, 1528.

Comment on “Frankincense.” Languagehat.com, 22 December 2021.

Dictionary of Medieval Latin from British Sources, 2013, s.v. incensum, sacristarius. Brepols: Database of Latin Dictionaries.

Gower John. Mirour de l’Omme. The Complete Works of John Gower, vol. 1 of 4. G.C. Macauley, ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1899, lines 28,165–170, 313.

Middle English Dictionary, 2019, s.v. frank-encens, n.

Müller, Walter W. “Notes on the Use of Frankincense in South Arabia.” Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies, vol. 6, 1976, 124–36. JSTOR.

The New Oxford Annotated Bible (NSRV), augmented third edition. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2007, Matthew 2.11, 10 New Testament.

Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, 1989, s.v. frankincense, n., frank, adj.2.

Riley, Henry Thomas, ed. Liber Albus, Liber Customarum, et Liber Horn, vol. 1. London: Longman, et al., 1859, 230. HathiTrust Digital Archive.

Trevisa, John. On the Properties of Things, vol. 2 of 3. M.C. Seymour and D.C. Greetham, eds. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975. 15.131, 802. London, British Library, MS Additional 27944.

Image credit: Scott Zona, 2008. Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license.