khaki

“Corps of Guides,” Richard Simkin, 1891

13 August 2025

Khaki is a light brown or tan cloth, usually of cotton or wool, or simply a designation of that color. In past decades it was associated with military uniforms but has become less so of late. This word, like many others, is a legacy of British colonialism. The word is borrowed from the Urdu khaki, meaning dusty, which has a root of khak, dust. And it was British troops occupying India that first adopted khaki uniforms.

The first “British” soldiers to do so were the Corps of Guides, a regiment of Indian soldiers, with British and Indian officers, formed in 1846. Secondary sources claim the Guides were nicknamed the Old Khakis prior to the Indian Insurrection of 1857, but I have not found any primary sources with that usage. For instance, there is this in a biography of General Harry Burnett Lumsden, who commanded the Guides, written by his younger brother Peter, who also served in India. But while this is in reference to the period around 1850, the passage was not written until 1899:

There used to be a good deal of rivalry between the Guides and the 1st Punjab Rifles in border expeditions. While the former were styled “Khákis” from their dust-coloured clothing, the latter went by the name of the “Siah posh”* owing to their being clothed in invisible green, like British Rifle Corps.

The note for Siah posh reads, “Black-coated.”

Other British regiments in India began to dye their uniforms khaki during the insurrection. We see this adoption of khaki uniforms by British soldiers in a letter written by Herbert Benjamin Edwardes to Harry Lumsden from Peshawar during the insurrection:

The whole of the troops here are dressed in khâkee.

There is a reference to Khakee Infantry in the London newspaper The People of 5 September 1857:

The 52nd and Khakee Infantry supported us as well, but the heat and long marches knocked the 52nd up very much.

The 52nd regiment was one that had adopted khaki uniforms during the insurrection, so it’s unclear exactly what the Khakee Infantry refers to here. It may have been the Guides or other British and Indian troops, perhaps inclusive of the 52nd, who had adopted khaki uniforms.

And we see a direct reference to khaki uniforms from 2 January 1858, again reported in The People:

We then rode to the artillery end of cantonments; in the artillery barracks we found four companies of Highlanders just arrived; actual Highlanders, the gallant 93rd, with broad shoulders, thick bare calves, actual tartan kilts, and very long, very loose open khakee jackets with red cuffs and collars.

Khaki was much better suited to the modern battlefield than the brightly colored uniforms of centuries past, and by the close of the nineteenth century, khaki had become the standard uniform of the British army so much so, that in the election of 1900, during the Boer War, the phrase to vote khaki became a catchphrase meaning to support the government and the war.

The US Army adopted khaki as a hot-weather uniform during the Spanish-American War of 1898 and phased it out from its uniforms in the early 1980s.

And today, khaki-colored trousers have lost most of their military association but have become an office-casual “uniform.”

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Sources:

Edwardes, Herbert Benjamin. Letter to Harry Burnett Lumsden, 21 July 1857. In Peter S. Lumsden and George R. Elsmie. Lumsden of the Guides. London: John Murray: 1899, 200. HathiTrust Digital Library.

“The Indian Revolt. The Relief of Lucknow.” People (London), 2 January 1858, 5/6. Gale Primary Sources: Nineteenth Century Collections Online.

“The Indian Revolt. The Siege of Delhi.” People (London), 5 September 1857, 5/6. Gale Primary Sources: Nineteenth Century Collections Online.

Oxford English Dictionary Online, 1901, s.v. khaki, adj. and n.

Whitehorne, A. C. “Khaki and Service Dress.” Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 15.59, Autumn 1936, 180–83. JSTOR.

Image credit: Richard Simkin, 1891. Wikimedia Commons. Public domain image.

food desert / food swamp

New Orleans neighborhood grocery store, 2007, presumably closed following Hurricane Katrina in 2005

11 August 2025

A food desert is an area with poor access to food, especially nutritious food and fresh fruits and vegetables. Popularly associated with urban areas, food deserts are also a problem in rural regions. The term is a notable one because there is a shift in its meaning, or rather in the social class it refers to. Also, in later years it has been criticized as being inaccurate, with the term food swamp suggested as a replacement.

In early use, food desert did not so much signify a problem associated with poverty but rather one associated with affluence. A food desert was an area devoid of fine dining or “good” food, with more pedestrian options being the only ones available. In the earliest use I have found, the full phrase is good food desert, and it is applied to Scotland, a criticism leveled at that country by the English (as if the English in the 1970s could boast about their culinary options). From the London Times of 30 March 1973:

The final straw was the review of the new RAC Guide, which roundly pronounced Scotland part of the “good food desert.”

We also see a shift in the modifiers, where junk food or fast food are used, not to indicate what the desert lacks but rather what it contains. From Vancouver, British Columbia’s Province of 8 March 1981:

Let us munch at LETTUCEMANIA, 850 Thurlow. It’s a fresh idea in catering and a green oasis in the junk-food desert.

Or this from the Miami Herald of 22 July 1982:

Corn chowder should contain corn. Shrimp salad requires shrimp. And banana cream pie really needs bananas.

Once upon a time none of this would be news. But in these days of processed, artificial and unpronouncable [sic] ingredients, Fancy Pantry, 145 Westward Dr., Miami Springs is an oasis of real flavors in the fast food desert.

We see the unmodified food desert in this sense in the 2 October 1986 issue of London’s The Listener:

In Derbyshire the local-based cheesemakers have also gone and the only true Derby cheese is made in North Yorkshire. Buchinghamshire, which Defoe described as “eminent for the richest land and perhaps the richest graziers in England,” is now symbolised by [the city of] Milton Keynes: “not only the home of the Open University but a food desert. Affluence and convenience go hand-in-hand which means supermarkets on a vast scale, scores of fast-food takeaways, yet hardly a decent butcher or baker to be seen.”

And there is this one that is also cited in the Oxford English Dictionary, although the snipped form contained in that dictionary’s citation is misleading. One would think it relates to an impoverished area, rather than a tourist hub that happens to have bad food. From Melbourne, Australia’s Herald of 9 March 1988:

Such reflections always remind me of a holiday (actually it was our honeymoon, which for those keen on trivia is known as la lune de miel in French) to New Caledonia, surely more of a food desert than anything outside five kilometres from the centre of Melbourne. After eating very expensive rubbish for a week, we tried again at an outpost somewhere north of Noumea, a town not unlike Port Augusta for charm. Truite avec petits pois sounded pretty good to me. A steaming bowl of little peas certainly accompanied the fish, but there was a rub to the green. The peas came from a tin. The peas were the only decent meal we had in ten days on the island.

We see the shift in application to impoverished, inner-city areas in the late 1990s, and this quickly becomes the dominant sense of the phrase. From London’s Financial Times of 13 March 1997:

Some localities have also become “food deserts,” where independent shops and street markets have closed and poorer citizens without cars have difficulty reaching the “cathedrals of choice” on the edges of towns.

And from the Independent of 11 June 1997:

Tessa Jowell learnt a new phrase last week: the “food desert.” Food deserts, the minister of public health was told at a private seminar in London, are those areas of inner cities where cheap, nutritious food is virtually unobtainable. Car-less residents, unable to reach out-of-town supermarkets, depend on the corner shop where prices are high, the products are processed and fresh fruit and vegetables poor or non-existent.

But about a decade later, the term food desert came under criticism for painting an inaccurate picture of the problem. It wasn’t that food was unavailable in such areas, but rather that fresh and nutritious choices were swamped by fast-food restaurants and convenience stores. Hence, the term food swamp was coined as an alternative.

This alternative appears first in academic literature. The earliest use, and perhaps the coinage itself, can be found in a February 2009 conference paper by Donald Rose et al.:

Others have found that fast food restaurants also locate disproportionately in low-income areas. The caloric imbalance that leads to obesity is, of course, an issue about entire diets, not specific foods. But the extensive amount of energy-dense offerings available at these venues may in fact inundate, or swamp out, what relatively few healthy choice foods there are. Thus, we suggest that a more useful metaphor to be used is "food swamps" rather than food deserts.

While the authors of this paper say that the underlying metaphor is being “swamped out,” one cannot help but think the contrast between a desert and a swamp was not also in play.

We see food swamp again the following year in a PhD dissertation by Alison Gustafson of the University of North Carolina:

It is too simplistic to suggest that supercenters create obesity, it is more plausible that in rural and semi-rural communities, who already have high rates of obesity, rural landscapes are conducive to building large expansive type of stores which also may have higher density of fast food restaurants, less areas for recreation and physical activity, and represent a rural type of “food swamp.” This type of rural food swamp has easy access to less healthy food and more difficult access to resources for physical activity and thereby may increase the rates of obesity. Since our results did not find associations between neighborhoods with supermarkets and lower weights or higher consumption of fruits and vegetable servings, as previous studies have it is highly possible that in rural neighborhoods access to cheap energy dense foods outweighs any potential benefit of neighborhoods with supermarkets.

Gustafson cites Rose et al. as being the source for her use of the term.

But also in 2010, we see food swamp moving out of the confines of academia and into general public discourse. From the Michigan Citizen of 7 November 2010:

What is a “food desert?” It suggests an area lacking access to food for miles and miles, filled with unspeakable suffering and few prospects.

[…]

Cheap, low density, highcalorie [sic] “food” is available at every turn, so, if there is food everywhere, you can not portray Detroit as a “desert.”

[…]

As for what this is that we have here, let’s call it a “food swamp,” because there’s something of a problem here. We can agree that it is an [sic] very uncomfortable food environment, at the very least.

California’s Oakland Tribune picks up the term on 31 May 2011:

Depending on your perspective, Castlemont [a neighborhood of Oakland] is a food swamp or a food desert. It's definitely swamped by liquor stores and mini-marts—four on either side of campus, including one advertising itself as “Home of the Mighty Knights.”

The stores are nutrition deserts, offering chips, candy, liquor, and occasionally bananas. The stores that carry what a family dinner looks like—meat, poultry, milk, vegetables, fruit and bread—don't exist.

And a year later the term gets the imprimatur of the paper of record. From the New York Times of 18 April 2012 (17 April in the online edition):

Within a couple of miles of almost any urban neighborhood, “you can get basically any type of food,” said Roland Sturm of the RAND Corporation, lead author of one of the studies. “Maybe we should call it a food swamp rather than a desert.”

Despite the critique of being inaccurate, food desert remains the overwhelming choice for this particular situation, with food swamp lagging far behind.

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Sources:

Cooper, Derek. “In Search of Local Variety.” Listener (London), 2 October 1986, 12/2. Gale Primary Sources: The Listener Historical Archive, 1929–1991.

“Dining with Cee Cee.” Province (Vancouver, British Columbia), 8 March 1981, Magazine 6/6. ProQuest Newspapers.

Gustafson, Alison. Food Environment as a Determinant of Weight and Diet Change in Low-Income North Carolina Women. PhD diss. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 2010, 89–90. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses.

Jones, Phil. “You Say Tomato…” Michigan Citizen (Highland Park), 7 November 2010, A10. ProQuest Newspapers.

Kolata, Gina. “Studies Question the Pairing of Food Deserts and Obesity.” New York Times, 18 April 2012, A1/5–6. ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

Laurance, Jeremy. “More Equality—Just What the Doctor Ordered.” Independent (London), 11 June 1997, 20/1. Gale Primary Sources: The Independent Historical Archive.

Maitland, Alison. “Multiples Have Ever-Widening Domain.” Financial Times (London), 13 March 1997, 14/5. Gale Primary Sources: Financial Times Historical Archive.

Motamedi, Beatrice. “Weathering Childhood: Stressors that Jeopardize Teen Health.” Oakland Tribune (California), 31 May 2011. ProQuest: Newspapers.

Oxford English Dictionary Online, 2003, s.v. food desert, n.

Rose, Donald, et al. “Deserts in New Orleans? Illustrations of Urban Food Accesss and Implications for Policy.” University of Michigan National Poverty Center/USDA Economic Research Service Research, “Understanding the Economic Concepts and Characteristics of Food Access,” February 2009, 15–16. CiteSeerX.

Slattery, G. Herald (Melbourne, Australia), 9 March 1988, 8. Nexis Uni.

“The Times Diary.” Times (London), 30 March 1973, 18/6. Gale Primary Sources: The Times Digital Archive.

Weiss, Jeffrey. “Pantry May Not Be Fancy, but People Love the Food.” Miami Herald, 22 July 1982, 17/1. Readex: America’s Historical Newspapers.

Photo credit: Karen Apricot, 2007. Wikimedia Commons. Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic license.

cyclone

Hurricane Florence, 2018; photo from a camera on board the International Space Station

8 August 2025

Cyclone, a noun meaning a windstorm that revolves around a center of low pressure, has a somewhat interesting etymology in that it is a modern coinage using ancient roots. It is also one of those rare words that we can pinpoint its precise origin, a situation somewhat more common with scientific and technical terms.

Cyclone was coined in 1848 by Henry Piddington (1797–1858, an English ship captain turned scientist who had settled in India. Piddington is best known for his study of meteorology. In his Sailor’s Horn-book of that year, Piddington wrote:

CLASS II. Circular (or highly curved) winds.

Hurricane Storms. Some gales of high latitudes (?)
Whirlwinds—of wind, rain, dust, &c.—called in Spanish, French, Portuguese, &c. Turbo, Turbonado, Tourbillion, Tourmente.
African Tornado, (sometimes?)
Water spouts.
Bursting of Spouts water spouts, &c.
Samiel.
Simoom.

I am not altogether averse to new names, but I well know how sailors, and indeed many landsmen; dislike them; I suggest, however, that we might perhaps for all this last class, of circular or highly curved winds, adopt the term “Cyclone” from the Greek Κυκλως (which signifies amongst other things the coil of a snake) as neither affirming the circle to be a true one, though the circuit may be complete, yet expressing sufficiently the tendency to circular motion in these meteors. We should by the use of it be able to speak without confounding names which may express either straight or circular winds—such as “gale, storm, hurricane,” &c.—with those which are more frequently used (as hurricane) to designate merely their strength. This is what leads to confusion, for we say of, and we the authors ourselves write about, ships and places in the same “storm” having “the storm” commencing—"the gale increasing”—"the hurricane passing over”—and the like; merely because the ships or localities of which we speak had the wind of different degrees of strength, though the whole were experiencing parts of the same circular storm. Cycloidal is a known word, but it expresses relation to a defined geometrical curve and one not approaching our usual views, which are those of something nearly, though not perfectly, circular. Now if we used a single word and said The “Cyclone” commenced, increased, passed over, &c. we shall get rid of all this ambiguity, and use the same word to express the same thing in all cases.

Piddington makes an error with his Greek. Κυκλως (kuklos) means circle, not the “coil of a snake.” It the snake metaphor is what he had in mind, the Greek would be κύκλωμα (kukloma). Some nineteenth-century writers with better knowledge of Greek spelled the word cyclome.

While the term is used in a general sense for all circular storms, regardless of wind strength or size, it can also be used more specifically to refer to smaller circular storms, such as tornados. And, in fact, in the United States cyclone has often been used to mean tornado.

Of course, for New Yorkers cyclone has a very different association. It is the name of the famous Coney Island roller coaster that opened in 1927.

The “Cyclone” roller coaster, Coney Island, Brooklyn

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Sources:

Oxford English Dictionary Online, 1893, s.v. cyclone, n.

Piddington, Henry. The Sailor’s Horn-Book for the Law of Storms. New York: John Wiley, 1848, 8. HathiTrust Digital Library.

Photo credits:

Hurricane Florence: NASA, 2018. Wikimedia Commons. Public domain image.

Cyclone Roller Coaster: Leonard J. DeFrancisci, 2013. Wikimedia Commons. Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

satellite

The Hubble Space Telescope

6 August 2025

We normally think of a satellite as an object in outer space that is in orbit around another, larger object, such as a moon around a planet. But that is not its only meaning in present-day English, nor is it the original sense of the word.

Satellite is borrowed from both the French satellite, meaning bodyguard and directly from the French word’s source, the Latin satelles, meaning attendant or member of a retinue. This courtly sense of the word appears in English by 1522, when it appears in a translation of Sallust’s account of the Jugurthine War (112–06 BCE) between Rome and Numidia. Jugurtha, the adopted son of King Micipsa of Numidia, had, upon Micipsa’s death, usurped the throne in 117 BCE by having his two adopted brothers killed.

This done the sayd Numydyan conuayed these armed men preuyly by nyght into the house of Hiempsall / lyke as he was infourmed by Iugurth. Whan this treatoure satellyte was entred with his company & had broken into th[e] inwarde edifices: diuers of them serched for the prince Hiempsall: som murdred his seruau[n]tes as they lay slepynge in theyr beddys suspectynge no suche treason.

Jugurtha was captured by the Romans in 104 BCE, paraded in Rome as part of a triumph, and later executed.

The celestial sense of satellite is a metaphorical extension of the original sense of a courtly attendant. Johannes Kepler, writing in Latin in his 1611 Dioptrice describes the moons of Jupiter as satelles. He is ventriloquizing Galileo, not claiming the discovery of Jupiter’s moons as his own:

Atq[ue] en inventum Iovi satellitium seniculo vero decrepito duos servos, qui incessum illius adjutent, nunquam a lateribus illius discedentes.

(And behold, I have discovered two servants, a satellite of Jupiter, an old and decrepit man, who help his progress, never departing from his sides.)

Kepler’s satellitium is in the singular, indicating that he is using the word to refer to a retinue, not a single servant. As far as I know, Galileo did not himself use satelles to describe the moons.

This sense appears in English discourse in 1640 in John Sadler’s Masquarade du Ciel, a pageant performed for the court of Charles I about the new discoveries in astronomy. The metaphor of a moon being a courtly attendant is obvious:

Now JUPITER also commeth back again with his Satellites, waiting on the Returne of His Soveraigne PHEBUS; who, in his Return, exalteth JUPITER, His Loyall and most Humble Servant: who, like a Noble Subject, Thought one Gracious smile, one Glaunce, from his Prince; more then enough to reward the most faithfull and Loyall Service (possible) to His Royall Soveraign.

The use of satellite to describe an artificial device put into orbit around a planet predates the capability to actually do so by some eighty years. As with many technological terms, the use in science fiction precedes the use in science fact. And for this one we go to the grandfather of that genre, Jules Verne. In his 1879 novel Les 500 millions de la Bégum, Verne uses satellite to refer to projectile shot into orbit from a cannon. The English translation, The Begum’s Fortune, appeared the same year:

You will hear with pleasure that we saw your perfect shell, at forty-five minutes and four seconds past eleven, pass above our town. It was flying towards the west, circulating in space, which it will continue to do until the end of time. projectile, animated with an initial speed twenty times superior to the actual speed, being ten thousand yards to the second, can never fall! This movement, combined with terrestrial attraction, destines it to revolve perpetually round our globe.

You ought to have been aware of this

I hope and expect that the cannon in the Bull Tower is quite spoilt by this first trial; but two hundred thousand dollars is not too much to have paid for the pleasure of having endowed the planetary world with a new star, and the earth with a second satellite.

But satellite also has a political sense, that of a country or state that is dominated and controlled by a larger one. This sense appears in the late eighteenth century. Thomas Paine uses the word in his 1776 revolutionary pamphlet Common Sense:

Small islands, not capable of protecting themselves, are the proper objects for kingdoms to take under their care; but there is something very absurd in supposing a continent to be perpetually governed by an island. In no instance hath nature made the satellite larger than its primary planet, and as England and America, with respect to each other, reverse the common order of nature, it is evident they belong to different systems. England to Europe: America to itself.

Paine is creating the metaphor of a client state being a moon of a larger world, but he is not actually using the word itself in this metaphorical sense. Common Sense was so widely read and such a seminal political tract, that it must have had an influence on this use of the word. But for the actual use of satellite in this sense we must look to a few years later. It appears in an anonymous, 1780 letter from American loyalists who implore the Westminster government not to make peace with the rebellious American colonies or England will lose more than just the thirteen colonies:

With so many ready, and natural opportunities for enlarging their territories, it is not reasonable to suppose, that your [e.g., England's] possessions, which they [e.g., the rebellious thirteen colonies] usually call the Appendages, or Satellites of America [e.g., Canada, Newfoundland, and the West Indies], will be free from attack, and it will be absurd to expect that the force which would be insufficient to subdue them, or retain the ground you have in their present shattered and disunited condition, would be able to protect your remaining dominion in those parts, when they shall have gained a firmer establishment, encrease [sic] of power, ampler resources, and closer union.

While satellite has acquired new meanings over the centuries, all of them rely on the metaphor of a servant-master or courtier-noble relationship and thus, at their core, retain a vestige of the original Latin meaning of the word.

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Sources:

“Address from the Loyalists in America to the People of England.” Morning Post (London), 29 December 1780, 4/2. Gale Primary Sources: Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century Burney Newspapers Collection.

Kepler, Johannes. Dioptrice. Augsburg: Davidu Franci, 1611, 17. Archive.org.

Lewis, Charlton T. and Charles Short. A Latin Dictionary, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. satelles, n. Brepols: Database of Latin Dictionaries.

Oxford English Dictionary Online, December 2018, s.v. satellite, n.

Paine, Thomas. Common Sense. London: J. Almon, 1776, 22. Gale Primary Sources: Eighteenth Century Collections Online.

Sadler, John. Masquarade du Ciel. London: Richard Badger for Samuel Cartwright, 1640, sig. C1v. ProQuest: Early English Books Online (EEBO).

Sallust. Here Begynneth the Famous Cronycle of the Warre, which the Romayns Had against Iugurth Vsurper of the Kyngdome of Numidy. Alexander Barclay, trans. London: Rycharde Pynson, 1522, fol. 11v. ProQuest Early English Books Online (EEBO).

Verne, Jules. The Begum’s Fortune. W. H. G. Kingston, trans. Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott, 1879, 179–80. HathiTrust Digital Library.

———. Les tribulations d'un Chinois en Chine; Les 500 millions de la Bégum; Les révoltés de la “Bounty.” Paris: J. Hetzel, 1879, 123. HathiTrust Digital Library.

Photo credit: NASA, 2016. Wikimedia Commons. Public domain photo.

gnome

A garden gnome

4 August 2025

Just because two words are spelled the same does not mean they share an etymology. Often they do, but it is an unreliable guide, for sometimes the different meanings have wildly different origins. Such is the case with gnome. Most of us are familiar with gnome meaning a diminutive creature or spirit, associated with the earth and often guarding treasure. But a gnome can also be a saying or maxim, a pearl of wisdom. These two meanings are etymologically unrelated.

This latter sense is older. It comes from the Greek γνώμη (gnome), meaning thought, judgment, opinion. The plural γνῶμαι (gnomai) means sayings or maxims. It starts appearing in English in the mid sixteenth century. Here is an early example from Richard Rainolde’s 1563 Foundacioun of Rhetorike

A sentence is an Oracion, in fewe woordes, shewyng a godlie precept of life, exhorting or diswadyng: the Grekes dooe call godly preceptes, by the name of Gnome, or Gnomon, whiche is asmoche to saie, a rule or square, to direct any thyng by, for by them, the life of manne is framed to all singularitie.

The term for the diminutive creature is first found in the writings of Paracelsus (Theophrastus von Hohenheim, c. 1493–1541). Paracelsus wrote in Latin, and where he got the term is unknown. He may have just invented it, or perhaps it is an error for the Greek *γεωνόμος (*geonomus), an unattested word that would mean earth-dweller. This sense of gnome first appears in English in 1657 in a translation of one of Paracelsus’s works by Henry Pinnell:

Magicall tempests rise out of the aire, and there end: not as if the Element of aire begot them, but rather the spirit of the aire. The fire conceives some things bodily, as the Earth doth the Gnomes.

A glossary at the end of Pinnell’s translation has this:

Gnomes, Gnomi, are little men, dwarfs, or rather spirits with bodies living under the earth, Pigmies scarce halfe a foot high.

So remember to take care when assuming that words that are spelled and pronounced the same have the same etymology.

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Sources:

Oxford English Dictionary Online, 1900: s.v. gnome, n.1, gnome, n.2, gnomic, adj.1 & n., gnomish, adj., gnosis, n.; 1993: gnomic, adj.2 & n.,

Paracelsus (Theophrastus von Hohenheim). The First Book of Philosophy Written to the Athenians. H. Pinnell, trans. In Oswald Croll. Philosophy Reformed & Improved in Four Profound Tractates. H. Pinnell, trans. London: M.S. for Lodwick Lloyd, 1657, 19–20, 66. ProQuest: Early English Books Online (EEBO).

Rainolde, Richard. A Booke Called Foundacioun of Rhetorike. London: John Kingston, 1563, fol. 20r. ProQuest: Early English Books Online (EEBO).

Photo credit: EddyDD, 2006. Wikimedia Commons. Public domain work.