American Dialect: The Northern Cities Shift and the Great Lakes Region

1 April 2003

The dialect of the inland north, or the Great Lakes region, has the distinction of being “normal” American speech. As such, it is often difficult to categorize and people from the region are often not recognized as having a distinct dialect at all. Of course they do have one; all people speak with a distinct dialect. It is just that in this case there is not much to distinguish it from what is considered “standard” American speech. But there is one very distinctive feature of the accent of the region. It is one of the more distinctive pronunciation patterns in American speech. It is known as the:

The Northern Cities Shift
The shift is evident is a swath of territory stretching from the Hudson River valley in New York, across northern Ohio and Indiana, to Chicago and Detroit, encompassing the rust-belt cities of the northern Midwest. The shift is a distinctive pronunciation of short vowel sounds that was first identified by linguist William Labov and colleagues from the University of Pennsylvania in 1973. Now, not everyone in the region displays the shift; many opt for “normal” American pronunciation. Some people only display the shift with specific vowels, opting for the standard pronunciation for the others. But if one spends any significant time in the region, one can begin to identify the shift.

In the Northern Cities Shift, the short a sound is raised and fronted so that it becomes a short i, and then becomes a diphthong, dropping and backing to its standard sound. Bad is pronounced /biy-ud/ and cat is pronounced /kiy-ut/. The name Ann is indistinguishable from Ian. This shift in the short a occurs in Philadelphia speech as well, but only before specific consonant sounds. In the Northern Cities it is universal.

The short o takes the place vacated by the short a. Cot is pronounced /cat/ and pop is /pap/.

Since the short i was bumped out of its position by the short a, it has to go somewhere. It takes the place of the short u. Bit becomes /but/ and kid becomes /kud/. The short u, in turn, takes the /ou/ sound, buses becomes /bosses/.

Residents of Illinois also shift the short e sound before the consonant l. So they pronounce their state as /ell-annoy/ and the drink /melk/ instead of /milk/. This particular vowel shift is found elsewhere in the United States, but it is most prominent in Illinois.

Vocabulary
While the accent of the Midwest is difficult to distinguish from standard American English, like any region it has a distinctive vocabulary. The following is a selection of terms used in the region.

Baga, n., clipping of rutabaga, (Mich., Wis., & Minn.).

Bank barn, n., a barn built into the side of a hill, allowing access on two levels (Penn., Ohio, Ind., Md., Va.). Also basement barn.

Belling, n., a noisy celebration for newlyweds, a shivaree (primarily Ind., but also western Penn., W.Va., Ohio, & Mich.).

Berm, n., the shoulder of a road (Penn., W.Va., Ohio, & Ind.).

Booya, n., a meat and vegetable stew (Mich., Wis., & Minn.).

Brush cut, n., a crew cut hairstyle (N.Y. & Mich.).

Buckeye, n., nickname for a resident of Ohio, the “Buckeye State.” The name is from the American horse chestnut (Æsculus glabra), called a buckeye because it is said to resemble a stag’s eye. In the 1820s, settlers throughout the Ohio River valley began referring to themselves as buckeyes. Eventually, use of the name became restricted to the state of Ohio.

Canadian soldier, n., a mayfly, so called from the belief that they invade in swarms from the north (Ohio).

Carry-in, n., a potluck meal (Ill., Ind., & Ohio).

Cathole, n., a deep place in a river (Mich.).

Cincinnati chili, n., a style of chili invented in the 1920s by Athanas Kiradjieff, founder of the Empress Chili parlor in Cincinnati. More watery than most chilis, it is traditionally served as a sauce for spaghetti. Three-way chili adds a cheese topping to the chili. Four-way adds onions to the mix. And five-way adds kidney beans.

Clout, n. & v., political influence or power, to exercise such power. Originally Chicago (1937), now widespread. From the sense meaning a heavy blow.

Clove, n., a mountain pass or gap, from the Dutch kloof, klove (N.Y. Hudson River valley).

Cork ball, n., a bat and ball game, a variant of baseball with at least four players per team and a small ball of cork (southern Ill.)

Devil’s night, n., mischief night, 30 October, a night where children and teens play pranks. In the 1980s in Detroit, Devil’s Night acquired a very malicious tinge when it became characterized by a large number of arsons (Mich.).

Devil’s strip, n., verge of grass and trees between the sidewalk and the road (Ohio).

Doodle, n., a small pile or bundle of hay, grain, or something else (Ind., Ohio, western Penn.).

Dope, n., syrup poured on ice cream (Ohio).

Egypt, prop. n., an area of southern Illinois between the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. From allusion to Cairo, Ill. and the alluvial land nearby, evoking the Nile region.

Fish tug, n., a fishing boat (Mich.).

Goetta, n., /get-ta/, a dish similar to scrapple, oatmeal and ground meat molded into a loaf, then sliced and fried (Cincinnati, Ohio).

Gulf, n., a gulch (N.Y.).

Hard road, n., a paved road (Ill.).

Haw horse, n., the left-most horse in a team (Ind., Ill., Ohio).

Hawk, n., a cold, winter wind (Chicago, esp. African-American).

Hilliken, n., a rural or rustic person, a hillbilly (Ohio).

Hoodlebug, n., a small railroad (Ohio).

Hoosier, n., nickname for a resident of Indiana, also a rural or rustic person. The origin is unknown. The term dates to 1826. Various theories on its origin exist. One is that it is from an English dialectical word meaning high hills, but only one citation of this word’s existence has been found in England and none in America. Another is that is from an early settler with that name. Others say it is from the greeting “who’s ‘ere.”

Hutspot, n., dish of potatoes and other vegetables, and sometimes meat, cooked in a meat sauce (Mich.).

Juneberry, n., a serviceberry (Mich., Minn., Wis., and Penn.)

Kill, n., a river or natural waterway, from the Dutch kil (N.Y.).

Lawyer, n., a burbot, an eel-like, fresh-water fish. One 19th century wag said the name is because, “he ain’t of much use, and is the slipriest [sic] fish that swims” (Mich., Minn., Wis.). Also lake lawyer.

Lunch roll, n., a type of jelly doughnut (Mich.).

Michigan basement, n., a partial or unfinished basement, often with a dirt floor. Often added to an existing house as a furnace room.

Pitch-in dinner, n., a potluck meal (Ind.).

Book Review: Oxford Dictionary of Word Histories

1 April 2003

It seems lately that we have been reviewing books that are not in and of themselves bad or especially flawed, but whose utility is limited. The market for books on words and language is a crowded one, yet publishers seem intent on pumping out books that do not fit a particular niche or offer anything new or different.

This month we review yet another. The Oxford Dictionary of Word Histories, edited by Glynnis Chantrell, is a book that has no obvious flaws. The scholarship is uniformly excellent, relying on the extensive lexicographic files of Oxford Press. There are over 12,000 entries, which give the book considerable scope. Yet, in reading it one continually wonders if anyone would actually ever find this book useful.

The chief problem is the words selected. The 12,000 entries all cover common words in the standard vocabulary. There are no phrases, no slang, no jargon, and no profanity. In short, the book omits most of the words that people are curious about. The alphabetical arrangement is not conducive to conveying information on etymological or linguistic patterns. There are some attempts to describe derivation in sections called “Wordbuilding,” but these are simply lists of prefixes and suffixes under a different name and format.

The entries are fairly compact, typically running from six to eight lines. They are in plain English with few abbreviations or other etymological jargon. While this makes the information very accessible to the average reader, it also means is that each entry contains little more than one will find in the etymological notes of a good collegiate dictionary. Compare this to the approach taken by Merriam Webster in their 1991 New Book of Word Histories. Merriam Webster chose to have fewer entries (1,500), but the entries are longer, often half a page or more, and go into extensive detail.

This is really a bit of a shame. Oxford Press has gloriously rich files on word histories. Usually this information only makes it into publication in clipped and condensed form. A book that really delved into the history of words would be a joy. It would be the first time much of this research ever saw the light of day and it would provide insight into how the Oxford lexicographers make their etymological calls. Instead we get part of a collegiate dictionary.

Our recommendation would be to skip this one. It is not interesting enough to read, and if you are looking for etymological information on a particular word look in a good collegiate dictionary. And if you do not have one, your money would be much better spent getting one than on this book.

Hardcover, 420 pages, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0198631219, October 2002, $25.00.

Word of the Month: Space

1 April 2003

On 1 February, the space shuttle Columbia and her crew of seven were lost during their return to earth. In the weeks since, news reports have treated the public with detailed insights into NASA and the US space program and exposed millions to jargon terms used by astronauts and aeronautical engineers. So to honor the seven who lost their lives in the exploration of the heavens, our word of the month is:

Space, n., the expanse of the universe beyond the earth’s atmosphere. This sense was first used in 1667 by Milton in Paradise Lost. From the Old French espace.

The following is a sampling of technical jargon and NASA slang terms that have either been used in the news reports on the shuttle tragedy or have been the subject of inquiry by readers of the web site.

Ablation, n., the removal of material in small increments. In aeronautical use since 1951 to mean the removal of surface material via heat as an object enters the atmosphere. Also a verb, to ablate, and an adjective, ablative.

A-OK, adj., a variant of OK, 1961. The exact origin is uncertain. Some claim it means all-OK. Others contend that it was coined by Col. John A. “Shorty” Powers, a public information officer and the “Voice of Mercury Control” because A-OK was more likely to be understood through radio static than a simple OK.

Apollo, prop. n., designation for the third type of US manned spacecraft, flown 1968-75. Project Apollo was the program to put a man on the moon. After that project ended in 1972, the spacecraft was used in the Skylab missions, the first space station, and in the Apollo-Soyuz project, the first joint US-Russian space flight. After the Greek god.

Astronaut, n., a person who travels in space, from the Greek astro- (star) + naut (sailor), 1929, after aeronaut. Also cosmonaut, which is used especially for a Russian astronaut, from the Greek or Russian cosmos, universe.

Atlantis, prop. n., name of the fourth space shuttle orbiter, OV-104. Named for the famed research vessel used by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute from 1930-66.

Boost, n. & v., power that lifts an air- or spacecraft, in aeronautical use since 1931. Deboost, n & v., the slowing of a spacecraft via a retrorocket or deceleration maneuver, 1966. Also booster, n., an auxiliary engine or rocket that gives a rocket initial speed, 1944.

Burn, v. & n., to fire a rocket engine, the firing of a rocket engine, 1964.

Canaveral, Cape, prop. n., site of the Kennedy Space Center on the Atlantic coast of Florida. Launch site for all US manned space flights and US satellites in equatorial orbit. From the Spanish for canebrake or thicket of reeds. Called Cape Kennedy from 1963-73, before reverting to its traditional name.

Challenger, prop. n., name of the second space shuttle orbiter, OV-99. Challenger was destroyed on launch of the 51st shuttle mission on 28 January 1986 with the loss of all seven astronauts on board.

Columbia, prop. n., name of the first space shuttle orbiter, OV-102. Named for Christopher Columbus. Columbia was destroyed on re-entry on 1 February 2003 with the loss of all seven astronauts on board.

De-spin, v., to stop a satellite from spinning, 1960.

Discovery, prop. n., name of the third space shuttle orbiter, OV-103. Named for one of Captain James Cook’s ships.

Dock, v., to join one spacecraft with another, 1951. From the older sense of to bring a ship alongside a dock, 1600.

Endeavour, prop. n., name of the fifth space shuttle orbiter, replacement for Challenger, OV-105. Named for the first ship commanded by Captain James Cook, hence the British spelling of the name.

ESA, abbrev., European Space Agency.

Gemini, prop. n., designation for the second type of US manned spacecraft, flown 1965-66. From the Latin for twins, after the fact that Gemini was a two-man spacecraft.

Glitch, n. & v., a malfunction, 1962, from electronics jargon for an electrical surge. Ultimately from the German glitschen, to slip, probably via Yiddish.

Hubble, prop. n., an orbiting telescope, named for astronomer Edwin Hubble (1889-1953). Launched in 1990.

Intermodal, adj., relating to the transport of cargo that uses multiple modes of transport during the journey, NASA jargon from 1963.

Launch, v., n., & adj., relating to the lift-off of a rocket, 1952, from the sense of launching a sailing vessel.

Mach, n., a measurement of speed corresponding to the speed of sound, Mach 2 being twice the speed of sound, Mach 3 three-times the speed of sound, etc. Named for Austrian physicist Ernst Mach (1838-1916).

Man-rate, v., to certify a vehicle as safe for manned flight, 1963. Also, an adjective, man-rated.

Mercury, prop. n., designation for the first type of US manned spacecraft, flown 1961-63. After the Roman messenger god.

Microgravity, n., a condition where gravitational influences are very weak, specifically gravitational forces on board a spacecraft in orbit. (True zero-gravity is impracticable, imperfections in the orbit and gravitational pull from the sun, other planets and objects, and the spacecraft itself still exists). In use from 1975.

Mir, prop. n., a Russian space station that was in orbit 1986-99. Mir is the Russian word for peace.

Mission, n., an operational flight of an air- or spacecraft, 1929, ultimately from the Latin missionem, the act of sending something.

MIT, abbrev., Mishap Investigation Team, NASA and US military jargon for a group of engineers that investigate the causes of an aircraft or spacecraft accident. From 1990.

NACA, abbrev., National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics. Predecessor US government agency to NASA, 1922.

NASA, abbrev., National Aeronautics and Space Agency, US government agency charged with managing the civilian space program. 1958.

Nominal, adj., average, normal, within acceptable limits, 1966 for this sense. This sense of the word is unique to aviation and space jargon. The general sense refers to things having to do with names. There is a sense meaning in name only, that differences are insignificant. This sense is conflated with normal in space jargon. Off-nominal means outside acceptable limits.

Off-Scale Low (or High), adj., in reference to an instrument reading that goes outside measurable limits. Low or high refers to the vector when the instrument stopped functioning.

Orbit, n. & v., the path or course of a satellite around an object, 1696. To fly in a circle, 1946. To fly as a satellite, 1951. From the Latin orbis, wheel or circle. De-orbit, v., to leave an orbit and descend, 1962. Also used as a noun and as an adjective, especially in the phrase de-orbit burn.

Orbiter, n., a spacecraft or part of a spacecraft that flies in an orbit, 1958. Specifically, the space shuttle minus the external fuel tank and solid rocket boosters.

Payload, n., the part of an aircraft’s load from which revenue is derived or mission objectives accomplished, pay + load, 1930.

Plasma, n., a gas consisting of positive ions and free negative electrons in roughly equal numbers, usually achieved by high heat, burning gases, 1928. From the Latin plasma, a thing molded or shaped.

Progress, prop. n., an unmanned Russian cargo spacecraft used to carry supplies and material into orbit, based on the Soyuz design, 1978. Calque of the Russian name.

Pushing the envelope, v.phr., to exceed design limits. From mathematical and engineering jargon where an envelope is the locus of intersections in a series of curves.

Re-entry, n., the return of a spacecraft into the earth’s atmosphere, 1948.

Retro, n., a rocket that slows the forward momentum of a spacecraft, causing it to fall into a lower orbit or re-enter the atmosphere, 1961. A clipping of retro-rocket, 1957. From the Latin retro, backwards.

Satellite, n., an object that revolves around another, larger one. From the Latin satellitem, attendant or guard. This sense coined by astronomer Johannes Kepler in 1611. English use is from 1665.

Screw the pooch, c.phr., to commit catastrophic error, to fail, 1962. Euphemistic formulation of fuck the dog. From WWI army slang originally meaning to loaf, to idle, to fool around. Associated especially with aviation jargon because of its use in Tom Wolfe’s 1979 book, The Right Stuff.

Shuttle, n., a reusable spacecraft, more fully space shuttle. From 1960 in science fiction; in NASA usage since 1969. From WWII aviation usage denoting aircraft that made repeated flights between two points. Ultimately from the device used in weaving that passes the thread of the weft to and fro between the threads of the warp, 1338 from the Old English scytel.

Soft landing, n., a landing of a spacecraft where no damage is sustained, 1958.

Soyuz, prop. n., name of a Russian manned spacecraft, 1960. First flight was in 1966. Soyuz is Russian for union.

STS, abbrev., Space Transportation System, NASA term for the space shuttle, 1972. Shuttle missions are designated STS-#. The final flight of Columbia was STS-107, the 107th space shuttle mission.

Vandenberg, prop. n., US Air Force base on the California coast. Launch site for US satellites in polar orbits. Named after General Hoyt S. Vandenberg, Air Force Chief of Staff, 1958.

Zero-G, n. and adj., a clipping of zero gravity, a condition where there is no significant gravitational forces on a body. Zero-gravity was coined by Arthur C. Clarke in 1951; he coined zero-g in 1952.

Book Reviews: Dog Days and Dandelions & Coined by God

1 March 2003

This month we take a look at two new trade etymology books, Dog Days and Dandelions by Martha Barnette and Coined by God by Stanley Malless and Jeffrey McQuain. Both are well-written, well-researched works that look at the origins of words connected with a specific topic. But both books suffer from a common defect of etymology books, organization by alphabetical order, a defect that makes what could have been interesting topics that shed light into how English creates and adopts words and turns them into volumes of etymological trivia. Both books are fine works for what they are, but one is a bit disappointed when one considers what they could have been.

On the surface, one might think that alphabetical order would be a natural arrangement for books on etymology. After all, that is how dictionaries are organized and it makes finding individual words quick and easy. But while alphabetical order is appropriate for comprehensive reference tomes like dictionaries, it is not the best format for other works. Alphabetical order masks common themes and patterns of etymological change. Other formats sacrifice the ease of looking up a particular word or phrase, but this is easily addressed with an index.

In Dog Days and Dandelions logophile Martha Barnette, editor of www.funwords.com, examines the origins of some 300 words that have their roots in animal names and terms, many quite surprising. For instance, few would suspect that helicopter has as one of it roots the Greek word for wing, pteron, also found in pterodactyl and apteryx, or that sleuth is a clipping of sleuth-hound, another word for bloodhound. Other words in the book are more obviously animal-related, leviathan, cowslip, and shrewd for example.

Beyond the straight etymological origins, which in most cases could be discovered by looking in a dictionary, Barnette goes beyond etymology to place the words in historical context. She not only tells us that the word tuxedo comes from P’tuksit, a name for a tribe of Delaware Indians that means wolf-footed, but she also gives us a brief history of the formal wear. In gerrymander, derived from Massachusetts governor Elbridge Gerry and salamander, she gives us a brief look at the American system of political apportionment and the artwork of Gilbert Stuart. These contextual additions provide interesting tidbits of information for the reader and are perhaps the book’s chief attraction.

In the entry for doggerel, Barnette mentions how dogs have been held in low regard throughout history and this is reflected in such words. But it is with comments like this that we see the flaw in alphabetical organization. If the book had been organized thematically, such insights could be explored in more depth. A comparison of different “dog” words, for example, would be very interesting, but the alphabetical organization militates against such analysis. Another organizational option would have been to arrange the entries chronologically, to trace how borrowings and coinages reflect changing views of animals over time. Similarly, a chapter on Linnaean taxonomy and how the Latin scientific names for animal species are determined would be interesting. The alphabetical format reduces the work to a book of trivia when it could have been so much more.

Coined by God, by Stanley Malless and Jeffrey McQuain, is a similar book, albeit on a very different topic. Malless and McQuain examine 130 words and phrases that first appear in early English translations of the Bible, notably the Wycliffe (1382), Tyndale (1525), Coverdale (1535), Geneva (1560), and King James (1611) Bibles. These versions of the Bible cover one of the greatest periods of change in the English language—the shift from Middle to Modern English. Wycliffe was a contemporary of Chaucer and the King James (Authorized) Bible was written during Shakespeare’s lifetime. The impact these translations had on the English language is difficult to overestimate.

Malless’s and McQuain’s entries include both the prosaic (liquid, Ezekiel 44:30, Wycliffe) and the poetic (stranger in a strange land, Exodus 2:22, Tyndale), religious terms (Passover, Exodus 12:11, Tyndale) and the mundane (the verb to brain, Isaiah 66:3, Wycliffe).

Coined by God goes beyond simply presenting the words and phrases and their origins in Scripture. Malless and McQuain also trace the use of these words into the modern era. They discuss, for example, pillar of salt (Genesis 19:26, Tyndale), which is used as the title of a Shirley Jackson short story and ministry (Ezekiel 44:13, Wycliffe), which is used in Coleridge’s poem “Frost at Midnight.” Not all the modern uses are literary. The authors frequently cite pop culture references that use the Biblical words, such as the Rolling Stones 1968 song Salt of the Earth (Matthew 5:13, Wycliffe) and the use of treasure (Isaiah 39:6, Wycliffe) in the 1977 finale of the Mary Tyler Moore Show. This tracing of use of the words and phrases in literature and popular entertainment through the years shows the impact and significance that these Biblical terms have had.

But again, the alphabetical format militates against some of the analysis and comparisons that could have been done. Organizing the entries by translation, for example, instead of alphabetically would permit an analysis of the relative contributions each translation had on the English language.

Although Malless and McQuain do take some steps to overcome this problem. Many of the entries discuss how the words and phrases are translated in the other versions. For example Tyndale coined scapegoat in Leviticus 16:8, but Malless and McQuain discuss how the earlier Wycliffe Bible used “goat that shall be sent out” for the same passage. The book includes several indices organized by different principles, one organized by translation (cross-referenced to the books of the Bible) and the other by books of the Bible (cross-referenced by translation). Other back matter includes a chronology of Biblical translations that is helpful in placing the translations in historical context.

Both Dog Days and Dandelions and Coined by God are accurate, solid presentations of the etymological information related to their respective topics. Both also provide additional information, Barnette interesting tidbits of information on related subjects and Malless and McQuain leaning toward a more literary bent with information on how the words and phrases have been used since their Biblical coinages. But one cannot help wondering that if they had been organized differently, they would have been so much more.

Dog Days and Dandelions, by Martha Barnette; Hardcover; 200 pages; St. Martin’s Press; February 2003; ISBN: 0312280726; $24.95.

Coined by God, by Stanley Malless and Jeffrey McQuain; Hardcover; 221 pages; W.W. Norton & Company; February 2003; ISBN: 0393020452; $23.95.

American Dialect: African-American Speech

1 March 2003

Our study of American dialect cannot be solely based on regional differences. While regional distinctions are perhaps the most significant influences on the way we speak, other distinctions play a role as well and one of these distinctions is race and ethnicity. For most ethnic groups, patterns of speech are quickly assimilated into the local speech, becoming indistinguishable from the regional dialect, except perhaps for some specific cultural terms.

But African-American speech is different in that it transcends regional differences. African Americans have distinctive patterns of speech that are recognizable regardless of region. That is not to say that there are not regional differences among African Americans, but the similarities in the dialect across the nation are strong.

Many consider African American speech to be lazy or corrupted English. This is not the case. While in some cases the grammar and pronunciation is simple when compared to standard English, in other cases African American speech is much more complex. It is every bit as rule based and grammatical as standard English is. It is just that the rules and grammar are different.

It is often believed that African-American speech is influenced by African speech patterns and grammar, but more recent scholarship has discounted this. All of the characteristics of African American grammar and pronunciation are found in various British dialects. It seems more likely that these patterns were picked up by African Americans in close proximity with poor immigrants from the British Isles, either as neighbors or as overseers of slaves.

African influence on the dialect appears to be restricted to a small number of West African words and perhaps to the cadences of formal African American oratory.

Southern Aspects to African American Speech
African-American speech shares many similarities with Southern speech. For much of American history, most blacks lived in the South and in the 20th century when significant migrations of blacks to the North and West began, blacks continued to live in their own communities, retaining their traditional patterns of speech instead of adopting the speech of Northern and Western whites.

Like Southern speech, African-American speech is a non-rhotic dialect. It drops the R after vowels. So more becomes /mo/ and gangster become /gang-sta/.

African-American speech shares some of the Southern vowel changes as well. The short E is pronounced as a short I, so pen is pronounced as /pin/. In addition, the long I is pronounced as /ah/, rice becomes /rahs/ and nice is /nahs/. Similarly, the short I is often transformed into a diphthong, bell is pronounced as /bale/ and the name Montel is /mon-tail/.

African American Pronunciation
Not all of African American pronunciation is Southern, however. Some is quite distinctive to blacks. Consonant clusters at the end of words, or example, are often clipped. Stand becomes /stan/ and just becomes /jus/, but this is not universally observed. There is a complex set of rules that governs which consonant sounds are dropped and when. One major exception to the general rule is that P, T, and K are retained when they follow either an M or N. Hence junk remains /junk/.

Another pronunciation specific to African American is the substitution of /d/, /t/, /v/, and /f/, for the /th/ sound. /d/ substitutes for the voiced /th/ at the beginning of words and /t/ for the voiceless. So this becomes /dis/ and thin becomes /tin/. At the end of words /v/ and /f/ serve the same respective functions. /v/ replaces the voiced /th/, both becomes /bove/, and /f/ replaces the voiceless /th/, tooth becomes /toof/.

Finally, one word that is quite distinctive in African American pronunciation is the word aunt. Here African Americans follow the practice of traditional New England or eastern Virginia pronunciation and use an /ah/ sound at the beginning of the word.

African American Grammar
African American dialect has some distinctive rules of grammar as well. Perhaps most noticeable is the use of the verb to be to denote a habitual action. Standard English has no habitual tense, but African American English does. The sentence, “he be walking by,” does not necessarily mean that his walking by at this moment. Rather, it means that he walks by here frequently and if we stay long enough we should expect to see him.

Similarly, been is not used in the perfect tense, to denote a completed action. Instead, it refers to something that is continuing. “They been happy” means they have been happy in the past and still are happy at the present.

Another characteristic of African American grammar is the dropping the verb to be. Where other dialects might use a contraction like, he’s or she’s, African American omits the verb altogether. So, what’s up? becomes what up?

African American also has some unique uses of the verb done. For one thing, it is used to denote past tense. “He done come” means “he came.” Another use is to denote the future perfect tense. This is done with the form be done, as in “I be done with this by the time you get back.”

Finally, African American often drops the S in the third person singular and adds it to the first person singular. “He talks to me” becomes “he talk to me” and “I make a lot of money” becomes “I makes a lot of money.”

Code Switching
Of course, not every black American has all these characteristics in their speech. Like any dialect, there are regional and class differences. And most African Americans are perfectly capable of speaking in the standard American dialect. Many in fact switch back and forth as the need arises, a function called code switching.

Most people, black or white, engage in some degree of code switching. We shift our manner of speaking to match the social circumstances. Code switching in America is perhaps most noticeable in the Hispanic community, where it is not uncommon to hear alternating sentences of Spanish and English in a conversation. The same is true with any dialect, people alternate between the standard and the dialectical forms. This is more noticeable with dialects, like African American, that differ significantly from the standard than ones that do not.

So, while most African Americans will not use all these features all the time, they will use them at least some of the time.

African American Vocabulary
The following is just a sampling of some of the terms used in African American dialect.

All that, adj., excellent, superb. Hip hop in origin, 1991.

Ashy, adj., whitish or grayish skin due to exposure to wind and cold, 1952.

Back, n., the buttocks, especially those of an attractive woman, 1992. Often found in the phrase my baby got back (my girl has a nice butt).

Bad, adj., 1) tough, formidable, 1855; 2) good, excellent, 1897.

Blood, n., an African American, from the sense of shared ancestry, often used to denote a close friend, 1965.

Bomb, da, n., something superb or excellent, 1974.

Booty, n., 1) the buttocks, 1928, 2) the vagina, hence also copulation, sex, 1925. Also booty call, a summons, usually late at night to come home or over to a woman’s apartment.

Bro, n., an African American man, 1970, clipping of brother, 1910.

Chill, v., relax, calm down, 1979, also chill out, take a chill pill, chillin’.

Chump, n., fool, dupe, 1876. Also a verb meaning to trick or hoodwink, 1930, or to belittle, make fun of, 1979. Chump change, meaning a small amount of money, is from 1967.

Dozens, n., a verbal exchange of ritual, highly exaggerated, and often rhymed insults, often making reference to another’s mother, 1915. The object is to display verbal dexterity while not losing one’s emotional control. Often play the dozens.

Gangbanger, n., a member of a street gang, 1969. Also banger.

Gangster, n., 1) one who flouts convention and rejects white norms and societal values, 1960s, 2) a marijuana cigarette, a joint, 1960.

Go down, v., to happen, to take place, 1946.

Hawk, n., a cold, winter wind, 1946. Chiefly used in and around Chicago.

Hip Hop, n. & adj., urban, youth culture, often associated with rap music, 1982. The origin is uncertain; various DJs have claimed to have coined it; it may refer to the use of the nonsense words “hip” and “hop” in rap lyrics, or it may be from hip (cool, fashionable) + hop (dance).

Homey, n., a person from one’s hometown or neighborhood, 1944, a clipping of homeboy (1899) and homegirl (1934).

Jones, n. & v., an intense craving or desire, to desire, 1970, originally the cravings caused by drug withdrawal, 1962. Of unknown origin.

Jump, v., to suddenly change behavior, usually in phrases, to jump salty (become angry), to jump bad (to become aggressive), etc., 1938.

Jump Street, From, c.phr., from the start, 1972, also from jump city.

Kitchen, n., the nape of the neck, hair at the nape of the neck, 1974; unknown origin, possibly from the Scots kinch, a rope or noose around the neck used to control a horse.

Mack, n. & v., a pimp (1903), a flatterer or deceptive talker (1962), a ladies man (1991), to act as a pimp, 1964), to make a sexual advance, to flirt (1968), to use flattery and deceptive talk (1991), to swagger (1963), to kiss (1978). Also mack daddy. Probably from the French maquerelle. There is an older slang term mackerel, meaning pimp, but there is a gap in usage that makes this unlikely.

My bad, interj., a form of apology, “I’m sorry.”

Pad, n., an apartment, abode, 1938. Originally a term for a bed, a place to sleep. 1718.

Salty, adj., angry, ill-tempered, 1936. Often jump salty.

Wolf, v., to make fun of, to criticize, to threaten, 1966. Cf. woof. Also to buy a wolf ticket, to believe the criticism or threats. From barking dogs at night.

Woof, v., to talk aimlessly, 1934. Woofing, aimless talk, 1942. From barking dogs at night.

Word!, interj., a statement of affirmation, “that is true,” 1986. Also word up!

You go, girl!, interj., a statement of encouragement and affirmation to a woman, 1992.